Legalities: The collected information in this file is released under the GNU Free Documentation License which is reproduced below courtesy of the Wikipedia Project. http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/GNU+Free+Documentation+License. In the unlikely event that I read the GFPL correctly, I believe that I am supposed to provide my own copyright statement \ which I hereby do: Copyright 1998-2002 by Donald Kenney.

Note that there is no intention to present this as a finished document. It's just a set of rough notes for a book that I will probably never write. Many of the internal links are defunct. Maybe I'll fix that someday. Maybe not. I have attempted to remove all copyrighted material except some "thumbnail" images that I believe qualify as "fair use" under this week's groundrules for handling "intellectual property".

http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/LPSC98/pdf/1496.pdf

http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~hagadorn/Taph.pd

www.tu-berlin.de/fb9/palaeontologie/projekt.htm

http://www.grisda.org/origins/03066.htm Should be analysed carefully

http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/section3.html

There are a variety of creation legends \ most of them impressively complex. One example is the Nordic legend wherein there was a great void called Ginningagap in which Niflheim \ a region of fire and ice was formed in the North and Muspellsheim, a region of fire formed in the South. The great world-tree Yggdrasil and its opponent the evil serpent Nidhogg reached through all time and space. Under the a root of Yggdrasil lay the fountain of Mimir, the source of hidden wisdom. Eventually Nflheim came into contact with Muspellsheim and the fires melted the ice creating the Frost-Giant Ymir. Ymir's sweat yielded a race of Giants who lived on the milk of the giant cow Audhumla. The cow one day licked the ice and uncovered the Buri who begot a son Bur (from whom?). Bur, in turn fathered three sons, the Gods Odin, Vili and Ve. The three Gods murdered Ymir. They formed a great sea (in which the Giants drowed) from Ymir's blood. They created the solid land from Ymir's body. The Heavens were created from Ymir's skull. The dwarves were created from the maggots that fed on Ymir's body. The Gods then finished their work by creating the first man from an Ash tree and the first woman from a vine.

Primitive Creation Stories

http://www.dreamscape.com/morgana/ariel.htm

Galileo

Galilei Galileo was an Italian mathematician and astronomer. He was born in Pisa in 1564 and died in 1642. Galileo was a noted inventor, optician, mathematician and astronomer. He discovered the satellites of Jupiter. Galileo embraced the heliocentric universe model of Copernicus. 17^th Century clerics disliked the heliocentric model because it was seen as a rejection of God as the creator of the Universe and mover of the heavenly bodies. Galileo was admonished a number of times by the church about his beliefs and his practice of writing books that advocated the heliocentric model. He was forced to publicly recant his views in 1633 and was placed in house imprisonment for the final 9 years of his life. Since he was in poor health for the final decade of his life, this was not as great a burden as it might seem.

Bruno

Giordano Bruno was a 16^th Century Italian soldier, philosopher and (for a time) cleric. He was born in 1548 and was executed by the Inquisition in 1600. Bruno had a certain talent for annoying people and traveled to most of the countries of Western Europe making numerous friends and enemies everyplace he lived. Bruno was an outspoken advocate of the Copernican Heliocentric theory of the solar system. He envisioned a universe of many stars and Solar Systems created by God. Bruno and the establishment held widely divergant views on whether Bruno's world view showed sufficient respect for God. Bruno made his case in a number of books and lectures. The establishment made theirs by burning Bruno at the stake on February 17, 1600.

Copernicus

Nicolas Copernicus was a Pole born in 1473 and who died in 1543. He was a cleric and astronomer who worked almost 100 years before the invention of the telescope. His book "De Revolutionibus" published in 1530 hypothecated that the Earth was a sphere rotating on its axis once a day and traveling around the sun once a year \ The Heliocentric Theory of the universe. Copernicus had the good sense to die before the full impact of his ideas had been digested. Unfortunately for his immediate successors the Aristotelian -Ptolemic view of an Earth Centered universe had become religious dogma and the Aristotelian "Prime Mover" had become equated to God. Since the Copernican viewpoint obviated the need for a Prime Mover for the Celestial spheres, the Heliocentric model was not readily accepted by the Catholic Church. 100 years after Copernicus, Bruno and Galileo were burned at the stake and imprisoned for life respectively for espousing similar beliefs. "De Revolutionibus" was banned by the Catholic Church in the early 17^th Century and remained banned for two centuries.

Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton was an English mathematician and philosopher. He was born in 1642 and died in 1727. Newton was the son of a farmer. He was sent to college when it became obvious that he had an aptitude for learning and little real interest in farming. Newton discovered/formulated several key elements of modern mathematics including the binomial theorum and Newton's method of solving differentials. He is best known for formulating the theory of Gravitation which explained the motion of planets with one attractive force whose affects could be predicted with one simple equation. He apparently thought initially that his theory of gravitation was an approximation of reality and was surprised to discover that the results were exact.

Newton did not care for Decartes vortex theory of solar origin and eventually demonstrated that it was not consistent with the laws of motion.

Newton was a brilliant optician who worked out the principles of color dispersion and the nature of the rainbow. Although he understood the nature of refraction, his attempts to devise a color correcting telescope lens were unsuccessful. He eventually invented the reflecting telescope that used a non-refracting mirror in place of the troublesome refracting lens.

Newton dealt with gravity and mathematics in the three volume Principia and published a separate book on Optics.

Kepler

Johannes Kepler was a German philosopher and astronomer. He was born in 1571 and died in 1640. He was raised as a Lutheran, but was later excommunicated because of his refusal to agree with the Lutheran church on theological issues. He refused to convert to Catholicism. He moved several times to places that did not demand that he adopt one or the other of the two religions. He succeeded Tycho Brae as the Imperial Mathematician in Prague.

Kepler was responsible for major advances in optics, mathematics, and astronomy. As an astronomer, he was an ardent advocate of the Copernican heliocentric theory. He developed three laws of motion that describe the motion planets:

• Kepler's First Law: Planets travle in elliptical paths

• The planets subsume equal areas of their ellipses (relative to the focus where the central body resides) in equal times.

• The ratio of the squares of the orbital periods is the same as the ratio of cubes of the mean distances.

Newton subsequently rationalized these laws in his theory of Gravitation. Kepler was also able to measure the rotation period of the sun and the distance of several stars. Kepler was the first astronomer to explain the relationship between the moon and tides.

Tycho Brahe

A Danish Astronomer and mathematician who made detailed observations of planetary positions. Brahe was born in 1546 and died in 1601. He lost part of his nose in a youthful duel and wore a distinctive metal plate. Brahe felt (correctly apparently) that progress in astronomy depended on improved instrumentation. Brahe spent many years improving instrumentation and building Europe's finest observatory. He eventually had a falling out with King Christian and moved to Prague where he hired Johannes Kepler as an assistant. His voluminous observations of the positions of Mars over time were the basis of Kepler's development of the laws of planetary motion. Curiously, although Brahe demonstrated that the prevailing geocentric model was unworkable by observing comets moving unimpeded through what should have been crystal spheres, he did not support the heliocentric model of Copernicus.

Aristotle

A 4^th Century BC Greek philosopher who taught after Socrates and Plato. Aristotle was noted for his scientific approach to biology, and his failure to apply even the simplest tests to his quite incorrect notions of physics. Aristotle thought that the stars and planets were made up of a fifth element (Aether) over and above Earth, Air, Fire and Water. He proposed that the heavenly bodies were attached to 55 concentric rotating crystalline spheres. The outermost sphere was rotated by a "prime mover" The rest \ including a number of "buffer spheres" without celestial bodies attached were dragged along at varying rates. This model explained the general motion of the celestial objects, but failed to account for retrograde planetary motion and the varying of planetary brightness. Later modifications attached the planets to circular "epicycles" that were attached to the spheres and rotated constantly, thus accounting (roughly) for the variations in planetary motion and brightness.

Aristarchus

A third Century BC Greek philosopher/Astronomer who built upon the work of his contemorary Erasthones who showed the Earth to be a sphere roughly 8000 miles in diameter. Ariatarchus determined the size of the moon and made a rough guess at the size of the sun. He was apparently the first astronomer to propose that the Earth rotated around the sun and that the planets were bodies similar to the Earth also rotating around the sun. His ideas were less than enthusiastically received for a variety of reasons, some not entirely irrational and were subordinated to those of Aristotle and later Ptolemy. They were eventually revived by Copernicus nearly 2000 years later.

Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemy was a "Greek" Philosopher and Astronomer from Alexandria in Egypt. He was born around 85AD and lived until about 165AD. He summed up conventional thought as to the nature of the universe based on the model of Aristotle. Ptolemy thought that the Earth was a sphere about 8000 miles in diameter. He believed that the heavens were a spherical shell surrounding the Earth and that the heavenly bodies were objects moving around on the inner surface of the shell on an elaborate system of wheels (epicycles) and wheels attached to wheels. Ptolemy set this forth in a book called "The Algemest" This view prevailed until the time of Copernicus.

T. C. Chamberlin

An early 20^th Century astronomer who together with his contemporary F. R. Moulton hypothecated the Paletiesimal Theory of solar system creation. They hypothecated a near miss collision of the sun with another star. The close passage ripped material from the Sun (and star) that condensed into tiny planetesimals that then accreated into planets and moons by collision. This is somewhat similar to Buffon's cometary theory and is subject to some of the same criticisms. e.g. How did the stars get created?

Tidal Theory

A theory of planetary formation set forth by James Jeans and Harold Jeffreys in 1918. It was hypothecated that a passing star raised a huge tidal wave on the sun and that parts of the wave broke loose and subsequently condensed into the planets.

F. R. Moulton.

An early 20^th Century astronomer who together with his contemporary T. C. Chamberlin hypothecated the Paletiesimal Theory of solar system creation. They hypothecated a near miss collision of the sun with another star. The close passage ripped material from the Sun (and star) that condensed into tiny planetesimals that then accreated into planets and moons by collision. This is somewhat similar to Buffon's cometary theory and is subject to some of the same criticisms. e.g. How did the stars get created?

Planetary Creation Models

Theories of how the world was created can be broken into four groups. In the beginning (as it were) there were creation theories of tribes and ancient societies. A well known example is the story of creation set forth in the Old Testament. There are many other generally much more elaborate stories. What they have in common is that they make little attempt to explain astronomical events, climate, the motion of the planets and similar phenomena. God (or Gods) created the world and the world is as it was created.

The second set of theories were developed by the Greeks who recognized that the Earth is a sphere and determined its size with reasonable precision. These Geocentric Theories placed the Earth at the center of the universe and placed the heavenly bodies on the inside of an encircling spherical shell. Several Greek astronomers \ especially Aristarchus \ went well beyond the Geocentric theory recognizing the sun and moon as spherical bodies also. But their ideas were considered to be eccentric and they were not in the mainstream of Greek astronomy as set forth by Aristotle in the fourth Century BC and Ptolomy in the second century AD.

Geocentric views prevailed until the 16^th Century when European astronomers starting with Copernicus introduced a Sun centered model of the solar system. The heliocentric model was supported by Bruno, Galielo, and Kepler, despite the strong opposition of the Catholic Church which felt that Heliocentricism was a denial of God. Evidence piled up ending with Kepler's formulation of the laws of planetary motion and Newton's explanation of gravity. At that point, heliocentric models became dominant. Except for minor refinements made in the 20^th Century to accommodate relativistic mechanics, Newton's work completed the task of describing the general nature of the solar system.

Shortly thereafter the issue became not what the solar system was, but how it was created. Newton's contemporary Descartes set forth the first creation theory that attempted to account for a solar system as we recognize it today with a number of planets rotating around a luminous ball of gas. Descartes' theory was the predecessor of what has come to be known as the Nebular Theory of planetary creation. In the succeeding four centuries, a number of theories of planetary creation have been suggested. The current favorite is a variant of the Nebular Theory that would have been recognizable in many respects to Descartes.

Planetary creation models date from Grecian times. Key figures include the Greek philosophers Aristotle, Erasthones, Ptolemy, and Aristarchus; Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, Descartes, Swedenborg. Kant, and a number of modern astronomers.

The Aristotilian/Ptolemic view of the universe placed the (spherical) Earth at the Center of a hollow celestial sphere (or multitude of such spheres) and moved the celestial bodies around the inner surface(s) of the sphere in circular epicycles. The first sun centered model was proposed the 3^rd Century BC by Aristarchus, but it was largely ignored until the 16^th Century when Copernicus proposed a similar theory. Galileo and Bruno advocated the heliocentric theory. Kepler's laws of motion and Newton's theory of gravitation explained the motions of the planets with a precision and elegance that earth centered models couldn't approach. None of these early theories really addressed the issue of how or why the Earth came to be. God(s) created it. Asking too many questions about how or why could \ and sometime did \ result in shunning, imprisonment, or death.

Modern theories of Earth origin date the realization in the 16^th Century that the planets are comparatively large solid bodies orbiting around the sun. Once the Earth was identified as just another planet, it became reasonable to ask where planets came from. The problems that any planeteary creation model must explain include the fact that all the planets rotate in around the sun in the same direction and in roughly the plane of the sun's equator. They must explain why most of the solar system's mass is in the sun, but most ot the angular momentum has somehow found its way into the planets. Explaining the condensed gas bodies of comets and why they are not in the same sort of orbits as planets would be nice. In the very recent past, the problem of explaining extrasolar planetary systems \ many of them containing huge planets \ have been added

Excluding the legends of tribal societies such as those embedded in Genesis, the epoch of Gilgamesh, etc, the first serious theory was that of Aristotle who thought than stars and planets were made of a fifth element - Aether. Aristotle's theory is treated with some scepticism today. Erasthones recognized the Earth moon, and sun as celestial bodies. Aristarchus managed a fairly modern model of the known solar system, but did not attempt to explain its origins. Copernicus built upon the work of Aristarchus without giving him much credit. Kepler and Newton explained the motions of the planets. Newton's contemporary Descartes is credited with the first modern creation theory that attempted to explain the solar system in terms of our modern understanding of the solar system as a star surrounded by circling planets. Early (and current come to that) models center upon a nebular hypothesis set forth in 1655 by Rene Descartes and expanded on primarily by Immanual Kant. In later centuries, several encounter theories were proposed that tried to explain planets as the result of the passage of a star near the sun or collision between the sun and some large object. These were never entirely satisfactory and have become less so with the recent discovery of planets circling nearby stars. An early 20^th Century variant of the nebular theory was the planetesimal theory. The nebular theory was ressurected by Weiszacker and Kuiper in the mid 20^th Century and is the generally accepted model today.

Georges Buffon

Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon was a well known 18^th Century naturalist. In his 1779 book "Epochs of Nature" he proposed that the earth was formed from solar material ripped from the Earth by a passing comet. As time passed it became apparent that there are difficulties with this theory on all levels. It does not explain the origin of the sun, of the comet, or of other solar system bodies. It does not explain why stars and planets rotate, or why planetary orbits are roughly circular. The mass of any conceivable comet is too low to tear material from the sun. Passage of a massive body through the solar system would disrupt the circular orbits of the planets, etc.

Collision Hypothesis

A theory set forth by French naturalist Georges Buffon in 1779 that the earth was created by material torn from the sun by a passing comet. The theory did not address the origin of the sun, of the comet, or of the other planets. It is now known that comets lack the mass tear material from the sun, and that any body massive enough to do so would create a hideously complex dynamics problem that is probably not resolvable with today's tools and knowledge.

Nebular Hypothesis

The theory that planets coalesced along with stars from rotating gas clouds. This is essentially the modern theory of planetary creation although the early advocates were unaware of many things that both support and conflict with the nebular hypothesis.

The theory is most commonly associated with Immanual Kant who proposed it in 1755. Kant envisioned a rotating cloud of gas that contracted and flattened into a disk within which the planets coalesced. The theory explains why the planets rotate around the sun and why they spin. The theory was set forth in a book called "Universal Natural History and the Theory of the Heavens: An essay on the Constitution and Mechanical Origin of the Whole Universe According to Newton's Principles." The publisher went bankrupt and the book was more or less unknown for many years. A significant portion was published with Kant's permission in the 1791. The work did not become widely known until the mid 19^th Century, Kant apparently based his work on books by Thomas Wright , Emmanuel Swedenborg, and Rene Descartes.

Immanuel Kant

An 18^th Century philosopher who is credited with originating the Nebular Theory of Earth's Creation. Kant was born in 1722 and died in the 1790s. He was best known in his lifetime for his philosophy. A book setting forth the Nebular theory was written in 1755, but was not published due to the bankrupcy of the publisher. Portions were printed with Kant's permission in 1791. Kant is best known for his work "A Critique of Pure Reason" in which he argued that many topics are not capable of anaylsis by reason alone.

Kant's nebular hypothesis seems to have been based on the prior work of Descartes, Thomas Wright and Emmanuel Swedenborg. Kant was unaware of some theoretical difficulties including the fact that gravitation can not cause rotation and the fact that compaction of gasses would not create solid elements. However, he did clean up some of the prior work and introduced some interesting concepts including repulsive forces as well as attractive ones.

Isaac Newton

A famous seventeenth Century philosopher and mathematician who set forth the laws of planetary motion and hypothesized the force called gravity. Ironically, Newton was adamently opposed to the "Cartesian Hypothesis" of his contemporary Rene Descartes which appears to have accurately identified the origin of stars and didn't do badly with the origin of the planets.

Cartesian Hypothesis

A concept set forth by Rene Descartes in 1655 that planets coalesed from comets which evolved from stars which evolved from swirling vortices of gas created by God. Decartes was prolific and this is only one of a number of "Cartesian Hypotheses" in various fields.

Rene Descartes

A seventeenth Century French mathematician and Philosopher born in 1596 and died in 1650. He is regarded as the father or modern philosophy. He proposed in a 1644 book called "Principles of Philosophy" that God had created and set adrift a number of vortices of swirling gas that eventually condensed into stars. Descartes thought that stars evolved into comets which in turn became planets. His contemporary Newton felt that the "Cartesian Hypothesis" was totally wrong headed.

Emmanuel Swedenborg

An 18^th Century cleric who is best known for founding a small church called the church of New Jeruselem. In 1734 he wrote a book called the "Principia" in which he hypothesized that a rapidly rotating nebula formed itself into the Solar System. Although this is remarkably close to modern beliefs, Swedenborg's credibility was harmed somewhat by his admission that the theory reflects information given to him from heavenly sources during seances. Some of his contemporaries thought that his spiritual communicants might be devils rather than angels. It is assumed that Swedenborg's hypothesis influenced Kant when he laid out his Nebular Hypothesis 20 years later.

Pierre Simon LaPlace

An 18^th Century astronomer and mathematician who published a book called Expositon du System du Monde in 1796. LaPlace expanded on the nebular hypothesis of Swedenborg and Kant and hypothesized that as nebulae contracted, they flattened and rotated faster eventually spinning off subnebulae that condensed into planets. LaPlace demonstrated that the laws of Gravity and Conservation of Angular Momentum would support this mode of planetary formation. One of the two major problems with this theory is that 99% of the mass in the solar system is in the sun whereas almost all the rotational energy is in the the planets. It is very hard to explain how this could happen under the influence only of gravity. The second is that of explaining how the subnebulae with their limited mass could manage to hold themselves together and form planets rather than disintigrating into expanding gas clouds,

Fred Whipple

A 20^th Century astronomer who hypothesized that the sun, planets, and comets condensed from cold material agglomerated from dust clouds under pressure of starlight. The obvious problem with this hypothesis is where the original stars whose light pushed things together came from. However, Whipple's description of comets as "dirty snowballs" seems accurate.

Gerald P Kuiper

A mid 20^th Century astronomer who proposed yet another version of the nebular theory called the "protoplanet theory" of solar and planetary creation. In Kuiper's hypothesis, a cloud of gas formed and contracted into a sun as a result of a chance eddy in the gas. The sun forming in the center of the cloud heated the remainder of the cloud.

The theory does not account for sufficient gravitational attraction to pull tenuous gas clouds into stars and does not account for the rotation of planets and moons. It seems to require a very large number of "chance eddies" \ one per star.

Carl von Weizsacker

A mid 20^th Century astronomer who ressurected the nebular hypothesis of LaPlace, Kant, et al. Weizsacker started with LaPlace's nebular theory, but instead of spinning planets off of the rim, he hypothesized that the center of the nebula collapsed into the sun leaving the rotating outer layers. The Sun is then hypothecated to have sent out blasts of energy creating turbulence in the outer ring. This transferred angular momentum from the sun to the rotating outer nebula which then collapsed into planets and moons. This theory solved both the issue of how so much rotational energy ended up in the planets and of why the planets did not disperse into clouds of gas as they no longer had to be spun off from the rotating nebula. It does not fully explain why all the planetary orbits lie in a plane, why the orbits are exponentially spaced. or why all the planets from Saturn inward rotate counterclockwise when viewed from "above"..

Thomas Wright

An obscure English philosopher why wrote a book called "An Original Theory of the Universe" In which he argued that the solar system itself rotated around some center of rotation and the the universe had many systems of stars rotating around individual center of rotations (what we would now call Galaxies). Wright's ideas contributed to Kant's Nebular Model of Creation.

http://www.pathlights.com/ce_encyclopedia/02-star8.htm

Above reference has links to lots of information on solar creation models

Oxygen Isotope Ratios

A analysis of the ratio of O16 \ the most common isotope \ to O17 and O18. Oxygen Isotope Ratios for (assumed) primitive inclusions in asteroids are 3.65 to 3.75 *10^4 for O17 and .00195 to .00198 for O18. Asteroid materials are clustered into three groups around 3.8 and .00201; 3,83 and .202; and 3.85 and .00204. Earth, Mars and Lunar ratios are in the general range of the middle group of asteroid material. Oxygen ratios for the sun are poorly known. Oxygen isotope ratio variations are much larger than isotope ratio variations for other materials for unknown reasons.

Working Point

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In The Beginning

(Notes and outline for a book that will probably never be written)

1. When was the beginning?

• Age of the solar system.

• Nebular Hypothesis

• Catastrophism

• Biblical. As set forth in Genesis. In 1654, the Irish Archbishop Usher working back through the genealogies in the bible concluded that the Earth was created on or about October 26, 4004 BC around 9:00 am (GMT presumably).

• Age of the Earth

• 4.5 billion years or perhaps a bit less according to the Nebular hypothesis and isotope dating of metallic meteorites. 6005 years if you believe the Bible.

• Summary of origin theories. Genesis.

• Spontaneous generation.

• Divine intervention

• Genesis

• Other religions

2. Where did life Originate? Panspermia, Bacteria in space, etc.

3. When did life Originate? Earliest Organic Remains

4. How did life Originate? Miller, Urey, Oro, etc.

5. How did life Evolve?

6. Timelines

7. Geology and Continental Wanderings

8. Metazoa

9. Vendian Faunas

10. Cambrian Boundary Faunas

10. Lower Cambrian Faunas

Origin of life is a major separate issue. See:

http://www.reasons.org/resources/apologetics/issol99.html

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http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/Evolution/a_new_molecular_window_on_early_.htm

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Check out:

http://faculty.uca.edu/ben.waggoner/biol4402/lecture6/sld004.htm

http://www.paleondemand.com/repo/repoe.htm

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Check out the following http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/ediacaran_phyla.htm

http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/Ecology/early_animal_evolution.htm

Ediacaran Animals

• The Dawn of Animal Life. An excellent site on the Ediacaran/Vendian fauna, from Queen's University, in Ontario, Canada.

• A special page devoted to Ediacaran fossils, from Queen's University

• A talk by Jere Lipps on the first animals.

• Here is a news report from Discover on the Ediacaran fauna and the problems of its interpretation.

• Nice images of some of the oldest Ediacaran fossils, around 565 Ma, from Mistaken Point, Newfoundland, Canada.

• Guy Narbonne's work on Ediacaran fossils (and more).

• Precambrian multicellular soft-bodied animals of the Vendian (= Ediacaran) Fauna) (600 to 540 My)

• Vendian fossils from the White Sea region of northern Russia.

• Animation of Continental Drift from 750 to 540 Mya

http://www.chinainfo.gov.cn/periodical/dqkx-E/zgdz99/zgdz9902/990201.htm

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http://www.ucl.ac.uk/geolsci/edu/ugrads/image/fieldtrips/TraceFossils/applic.htm

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Early Cambria -- Information of Lower Cambrian and Older Faunas - v0.01

An Encyclopedia of Late PreCambrian and Early Cambrian paleontology. This file includes data on many topics related to the land and life of the period roughly from 3800 to 510 million years ago when modern multicellular life was well established on Earth. Roughly, it addresses life from its first appearance to the end of the Lower Cambrian Period. It stretches to include soft bodied forms from the Middle Cambrian since the record of soft bodied forms from that period is better studied than the Early Cambrian.

The document is strictly an amateur effort. The author is neither a Geologist nor a Paleontologist. Feel free to use any of the material contained herein for any non-commercial purpose.

As is obvious, this is a long term effort. I am currently devoting a few hours a week to the project -- which is enough to keep up with widely distributed papers and to add some of the vast amount of collected material to the body of the document. Obviously, this project will require many years to reach completion. I apologize for the lack of photographs and drawings. For the time being, they are omitted because of the amount of space they require. Not to mention the difficulty in obtaining legal permission for their use. As compression techniques and bandwidth situations improve, I will probably do something about them.

Organization:

This site/document is organized as an encyclopedia -- a list of alphabetical articles. Hyperlinks are used to tie related subjects together. For starters here are links to four articles that provide links to four major topics:

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Late PreCambrian/Early Cambrian Geography

• Late PreCambrian/Early Cambrian Geology

• Late PreCambrian/Early Cambrian Life

• Miscellaneous

Pre-Early Cambrian Faunas

This file lists four faunas

• Pre-Cambrian Faunas A general category including early single celled animals, early plants, and various multicelled creatures including the Vendian faunas and contemporaneous creatures.

• Small Shelly Faunas The small shelly "Tomattomian" fauna -- small hard shelled animals found after the Vendians and just before the first Trilobites and Archeocyathids

• Lower Cambrian Faunas In North America this is defined by the range of the Ollenelid trilobites.

• Primitive soft bodied faunas Early soft bodied faunas -- mostly from the Middle Cambrian Burgess shale of British Columbia. Ideally, we would would not go that late, but earlier soft bodied faunas are fragmentary and appear to include some of the same forms.

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Early Cambrian Geography

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Abrigo Shale/Abrigo Limestone

Greenish Lower Middle to Upper Cambrian shales found in Southern Arizona. Apparently there is a facies change to the East as the formation is referred to as the Abrigo Limestone in Eastern exposures. The Abrigo appears to be time transgressive -- older in the more westerly exposures. It presumably overlies an analog to the Tapeats Sandstone and is overlain by the Early Ordovician El Paso and Bliss Formations in the East. The relationship of the Abrigo to the Upper Cambrian Muav Limestone of the Grand Canyon is unclear. The Abrigo is rich in ichnofossils resembling those of the contemporaneous Bright Angel Shale of the Grand Canyon. Body fossils are sparse in the Abrigo. They include trilobites, brachiopods-Billingsella, and hyolithids. Ichnofossils include: Cruziana, Palaeophycus, Bergaueria, Rusophycus, Didymaulichnus. Trace fossils are reported from green shales South of Tucson. Body fossils are reported from French Joe Canyon in Whetstone Mountains North of Sierra Vista, Pichaco de Caldera West of Tucson, as well as near Tombstone.

http://www.psiaz.com/Schur/azpaleo/cambrian.html

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Acata Gneiss

A 4.031+-0.003Ga old rock formation found near the Great Slave Lake in Canada. Dates are reported by Bowring and Williams. The Acata is the oldest dated formation on Earth. Individual Zircons in sediments in Central Australia are dated at 4.4Ga, but the source rock is unknown and possibly is not preserved.

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Acidophile

An organism that grows in highly acidic environments. The minimum ph of acidophiles varies with different authors. It may be set as high as 5 (mildly acidic) or as low as 2 (very acidic). They may be able to survive in pHs as low as 0 or even negative pHs. Acidophiles are sometimes asserted to be Archaea but apparently include bacteria as well. Acidophiles are capable of pumping H+ ions out of their bodies and maintain an almost neutral internal pH (6.5). The first identified acidophile was Sulfolous acidocaldarius found in the 1960s in an acidic hot spring in Yellowstone Park.

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Acritarchs

Acritarchs are small organic structures. They are not acid soluble and are found in sedimentary rocks from the present back into the pre-Cambrian. They are easily isolated from limestones with a bottle of almost any acid, and can also be isolated from silica rich rocks using hydrofluoric acid. They are good candidates for index fossils to be used for formation dating. Acritarchs include remains of several quite different kinds of animals including bacteria and dinoflagellates. Acritarchs are known from 1400Ma and had achieved considerable diversity by 1300Ma. Diversity crashed during the Sturtian-Varanger glacial event around 800Ma. Diversity increased again during the Ediacaran period and declined suddenly at the end of the PreCambrian{15}. 30 species of acritarchs (some suspected of being primitive dinoflagellates) are known from Victoria Island in the Canadian Arctic. Some Acritarchs can be identified by structure, others can be further tentatively identified by the presence of specific chemicals. Acritarchs known from the Lower Cambrian of Estonia, Sweden and Northern Greenland include:

• Globosphaeridium: possibly a primitive dinoflagellate

• Skiagia: possibly a primitive dinoflagellate

• Lophosphaeridium: possibly a primitive dinoflagellate

• Archeodiscina

• Leosphaeridia

• Leiomarginata

• Pterospermella

• Asteridium

• Cranomarginata

• Comasphaeridium

• Cyanobacteria filaments

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Actaeus

A 5cm Middle Cambrian soft-shelled arthropod of unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC. The animal is known from a single fairly poor specimen. It has a head shield and 11 probably articulating segments with a pair of gills on the head and on each segment. The head has two eyes on its margin and a pair of flexible segmented appendages each ending in four spines on the bottom side. There are also two long spines extending back from the appendages. There are probably 3 pairs of legs and gills aft of the mouth on the head. The body segments are biramous -- gills and legs -- on each side. There is a large triangular tail segment that has some similarities to Leanchoilia but is much larger. The animal may be related to Alalcomenaueus{1}

• Actaeus sp Whittington, 1981

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Adelaide Basin

A basin in South Australia containing neoproterozoic through Middle Cambrian sediments. Butcher, Gottlieb, et al report that evidence of up to five separate rifting incidents associated with the late neoproterozoic breakup of Rodinia can be found in the area.

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Adelaide Geosyncline

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Aerobe

An organism using Oxygen as the oxidizing agent in its metabolism; capable of survival in a normal 21% Oxygen atmosphere; and incapable of growth in an oxygen free environment. Aerobic bacteria do not have mitochondria to assist in reduction of glucose to Carbon Dioxide and Water. However, they manage. Aerobes are contrasted with Anaerobes.

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Aerosol Origin

A theory proposed in 2000 by Tuck, Dobson, Ellison and Vaida that cells originated by the accumulation of organic material on aerosol droplets produced at the ocean surface. The droplets are hypothesized to have been suspended in the atmosphere for extended periods where they could have been exposed to a wide variety of conditions stimulating diverse chemical reactions. The size is about the right magnitude for early monocells and the curious double wall structure of cells could have originated by the collection of additional organics when the particles entered reentered the sea.

• http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories/s515.htm

• http://www.i5ive.com/print_article.cfm/8172/50867

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Aftensjernesø Formation:

A lower Cambrian rock formation from Northern Greenland containing Ekwipagetia marginata, Serrodiscus and Calodiscus lobatus

• http://www.dpc.dk/Publications/GeoAbstracts/Geo35Abst.html

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Aglaspida

Primitive arthropods. The oldest members of the Subclass Merstomata of the Class Arachnida. Distant ancestors of the spiders. Several forms are known from the Upper Cambrian of Wisconsin. The oldest form is Beckwithia from the Middle Cambrian of Utah. Aglaspids are Merostomes with phosphatic exoskeletons having 12 abdominal segments. The twelfth (rearmost) segment is called the Telson and carries a long spine. The Aglaspids look much like trilobites but have six pairs of legs -- two forward of the mouth -- on their heads. Trilobites have antenna forward of the mouth and four pairs of biramous appendages (legs paired with gills) on the cephalon. It has been proposed that the ichnofossil Protichnites is the feeding track of Aglaspids.

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Agnatha

An order of jawless fishes. Two types of an Early Cambrian animal with apparent fins, vertebrate musculature, and with gills are known from Chenjiang China. Myllokunmingia and Haikouichthys. They are tentatively assigned to Agnatha by Janvier. A third possible agnathid from the same region is Haikouella. This was reported in Nature and in the popular press in late 1999. Modern agnathids have cartilaginous skeletons. Although Ordovician and Silurian agnathids were armored, neither modern nor suspected Cambrian agnathids were/are armored. Agnathids declined during the Devonian and have never recovered. There are about 60 modern species. Some such as the modern Lamprey are reasonably successful parasitic predators.

A single specimen of an unnamed possible agnathid from the Burgess Shale was mentioned by Simonetti.in the early-mid 1990s

http://www.natureasia.com/get.pl5/hottopics/991104shu/hottopics991104a.ch.shtml

http://www.paleondemand.com/repo/repoe.htm

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Agnostina

A suborder of Agnostid trilobites within the order Agnostida. The Agnostina include a number of taxa of small, blind arthropods with two thoracic segments and no free cheeks. The pygidia (which often don't look a lot like pygidia) have a maximum of three axial rings. The cephalons look even less like cephalons. The earliest Agnostina originated in the late Lower Cambrian and lasted until the Ordovician. They were very numerous in the Middle Cambrian. Traditionally, the Agnostina were thought to have evolved from the trilobites via the Eodiscina, however the legs are preserved in one genus of agnostid. The legs resemble the legs of crustacea much more than they do those of trilobites. But some other features such as the hypostome resemble those of trilobites. Agnostina are thought possibly to have been planktonic.

Typical Agnostina are less than a cm in overall length.

The Agnostinads include eight families of small blind trilobites with two thorax segments and untrilobitelike cephalons and pygidia. Two of the families -- Condylopygidae and Spinagnostidae appear to originate in the late Lower Cambrian. Possibly they evolved from the similar, but more trilobitelike Eodiscina. However, there is a problem with their appendages which are decidedly not trilobitelike.

• Condylopygidae

• Spinagnostidae

• 6 Middle Cambrian and later families (Agnostidae, Calvagnostidae, Diplagnostidae, Geragnostidae, Hastagnostidae, Phalacromidae

http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/galagnostida.htm (pictures)

http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/ordagnostida.htm

http://www.es.mq.edu.au/MUCEP/flagship/trilobites/agnostin.htm

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Agnostia/Agnostida

An order of Trilobites (probably). The agnostids are small trilobites(?) with two or three thorax segments. Agnostic pygidia and cephalons are roughly the same size. Agnostids originated in the late Lower Cambrian and are very common in the Middle Cambrian. The order is divided in various ways by various authors. I've used the Treatise's three family division: Pagetides, Eodiscides and Agnostides. The Pagetids appear to be basically normal trilobites with small free cheeks and only a few thorax segments. The Eodiscids have no free cheeks, two or three thorax segments, are often blind, but have trilobitelike pygidia. The Agnostids are blind and it is often difficult to guess which end is the cephalon. Agnostids have distinctly untrilobitelike cephalic appendages consisting of no antennae and four pairs of jointed uniramous (gill-less) legs. They have hypostomes. Conventional trilobites have a pair of antennae and four biramous (leg plus gill) appendages on the cephalon. The cephalic appendages of the eodiscids and pagetides are not known. Some authors have classified Agnostids as a Class of Crustacea rather than as an order of trilobites. The Class/Order is sometimes divided into two suborders -- Agnostida including the Suborder Agnostina for the typical Agnostids as well as Suborder Eodiscina for the Eodiscoids and Pagetides.

• Order Agnostida

• SubOrder Eodiscina

• Pagitidae

• Eodiscoidae

• SubOrder Agnostina

• Family Condylopygidae

• Family Spinagnostidae

• 6 Middle Cambrian Families

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Akademikerbreen

A late Neoproterozoic tidal flat fauna from around 570 to 590 Ma in Eastern Svalbard. The fauna is preserved in cherts. The Akademikerbreen and Polarisbreen groups are found in the Eastern part of Norway's Arctic Islands.

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Akilia Island (Akila Island)

A small island near Western Greenland containing 3800-3900 million year old banded iron metasediments similar to those from Isua in West Greenland. The rocks are tentatively dated as older than a 3870ma dike that cuts through the outcrop. The sediments contain Carbon enriched in C12 and thought to be of organic origin. The rocks were collected by Friend and Nutman. The probably organic graphite was found by Mojzsis. Nature, 7 Nov. 1996, p. 21.

The Island is about 100km of the West Coast of Greenland about 800km N of the Southern Cape. It is Southwest of Greenland's capital of Nuuk near the Arctic Circle.

It is unclear whether these are the same Greenland metasediments referred to as Itasq or the Itasq Gneiss

http://www.earthfiles.com/earth179.htm

http://inq.philly.com/content/inquirer/2000/09/20/front_page/GREENLAND20.htm

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Alacephalus

An Olenellus Zone Lower Cambrian trilobite from the upper Buen formation of North Greenland it is found in association with Olenellus svalbardensis. [edit: only one web reference]

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Alalcomenaeus

A 5cm arthropod on unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC. The animal has a head shield and 12 segments with a pair of gills on the head and on each segment. The head has two eyes on its margin and a pair of flexible segmented appendages on the bottom side. There are lobe like appendages under the head shield that may be gills. There are also two long spines extending back from the appendages. There are probably 3 pairs of legs and gills aft of the mouth on the head. The leg branches of the biramous appendages terminate in formidable spines that were probably oppossed . The body segments possess gills. there is a large oval paddle-shaped tail segment. The animal may be related to Actaeus{1}

• Alalcomenaeus cambricus Simonetta, 1970

http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/News/Orr.html

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Albumares

A small (1cm) discoid Vendian form with three large radial lobes separated by a irregular radiating striations. Similar to Anfesta except that the latter has five distinct sublobes positioned between each of the three major lobes and is more discoidal. There is one species Albumares brunsae - Reported from the Ust-Pinega Formation of the Summer Coast region of the White Sea{10,14}. Number [35] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis. [edit: No web references except Waggoner]

• Albumares brunsae - Ust-Pinega Formation, White Sea

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Aldanella

A primitive mollusk? Siberian specimens have an outer shell of aragonitic lumps -- prisms/spheerulites. There is an inner fiberous layer . (The Mongolian specimens are described as phosphatic). This is a general structure found in Aldanella, Watsonella, Purella, and Anabarella. Aldanella is part of the small Shelly Fauna in Spain. [edit: do this again] Aldanella are small coiled fossils that resemble gastropods but predate known gastropods substantially. They are best known as internal molds. They are members of the small shelly fauna in Siberia (Lena/Aldan Rivers) and Spain. They are also reported from Mongolia, West Africa and Newfoundland. They are variously thought to be anamolously early Archeogastropoda, Paragastropods of the family Pelagiellidae or non-mollusks.

• Aldanella attleboroensis Shaler & Foreste -- Siberia, West Africa

• Aldanella rozanovi Missarzhevesky -- Siberia

http://www.campublic.co.uk/science/publications/JConfAbs/4/264.html

http://www.kheper.auz.com/gaia/Paleozoic/Cambrian/Tommotian/Tommotian.htm

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Aldanocyathus

A Tommotian archeocyathid from the Aldana River near Yakutia, Siberia. A sunnaginicus is quite small -- about 2mm in diameter. The earliest Tommotian faunal subzone is the A sunnaginicus zone.

• Aldanocyathus sunnaginicus Zhuravleva 1970

http://www.kheper.auz.com/gaia/Paleozoic/Cambrian/Tommotian/tomm1.htm

Algae

A rather eclectic collection of primitive plants and plant like entities. "Algae" is not a proper taxonomic label in any system, but it is a handy label for unicellular and simple plantlike forms. Algae have in common that unlike bacteria, they are always members of groups that include autotropic entities that can perform photosynthesis, although a given speicies will not always be autotropic. Photosynthesis in algae is generally accomplished using Chlorophyll-A, but other compounds are used in some algae. Many unicellular algae have one or two flagella. Unlike plants, Algae do not produce cellulose. Algae require water for growth but many can tolerate intervals without water. Algae include forms that survive wide ranges of temperature and salinity. They have minimal organs, primitive or no vascular systems, and no protective cell layers over sexual organs (if any). Reproduction is by spores, not seeds. Sizes vary from 3 microns to kelps that may be 70 meters in length. Algae may be free floating, sessile or epiphytic on other plants. Prokaryotic algae are found as single cells, colonies or simple filaments. Eukaryotic algae, may be found as single cells, colonies, simple filaments or as well differentiated organisms such as kelps.

Algae include both unnucleated single cells (prokaryotes) and nucleated single cells (eukaryotes). They also include simple multicelled forms. Groups included in the algae include:

• Phyophyta -- Brown Algae (advanced). Pigmented with Xanthophylls.

• Cyanophyta -- Blue-Green Algae (prokaryotic) -- oldest of the algae. Cyanophyta combine with bacteria to form mats known as stromatolites or oncolites. Known from the Swaziland Group in rocks dating from about 3800MA. Pigmented with phycocyanin. Sometimes called Cyanoalgae.

• ProChlorophyta (prokaryotic)

• Chlorophyta Green Algae (basically aquatic plants) -- Apparent green algae are found in the 1900MA Gunflint Chert of the Lake Superior region.

• Some protists (Eukaryotic)

• Rhodophyta -- Red Algae (Eukaryotic) pigmented with phycoerythrin/

• Chrysophyta -- Golden Algae. Pigemented with carotenes.

The study of algai is called Phycology.

Algae are classified on the basis of their color which in turn depends on what happens when chlorophyll and other pigrmented compounds are mixed. Green, Red, and Brown Algae seem possibly to have acquired their chloroplasts indpendently. [submitted to Wikipedia]

http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/presents/algae1/glossary.htm

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Alice Springs

A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. - Arumberia, Dickinsonia, Hallidaya, Kullingia, Skinnera. There are reportedly several sites in Central Australia including, but not limited to, outcrops of the Arumbera Sandstone. These outcrops are unrelated to the better known localities in the Ediacaria Hills of the Flinders Ranges of South Australia(10be-10bh)

Stromatolites dated at about 3500MA are found at Curtin Springs Cattle Station roughly 100km E of Ayer's Rock. Well preserved bacterial fossils are known from the Bitter Springs Chert.

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Alkalophile (Alkaliphile)

An organism that grows best in highly alkaline environments -- ph of 7.3, 8.5, 9, 10, or 10.5 (depending on the author) or above.

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Allochthonous

Geologist speak for "far-travelled". When two sets of beds that have been mechanically intermixed after depositation (e.g. By thrust faulting), the beds that appear to be in their original locations are termed "Autochthonous" whereas those that have intruded in from elsewhere are termed Allochthonous.

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Allthecids

Members of the small shelly fauna in spain. [no internet references 010721]

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Aluta

Walcott's assignment for a common Middle Cambrian Burgess shale Ostracod. Both single shells and linked paired shells are common, but the soft parts are unknown. The animal has not been formally described.

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Amadeus Basin

A region of Australia where late proterozoic and Early Cambrian rocks are exposed. From oldest to youngest, the rocks are Arumbera Sandstone (Proterozoic, Early Cambrian), Todd River Dolomite, Eninta Sandstone.

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Amiella

An animal of unknown affinity from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It is known from a single distorted, twisted specimen of seven body segments. Most people think it is an anomalocarid, but there is not enough information on the morphology to characterize the animal.

• Amiella sp (Walcott 1910) SMC 57:27-28

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Amino Acid

Any compound containing an amino (NH2) group and a carboxyl (COOH) group bound to the same Carbon atom. About 20 amino acids are found in earthly life, where they serve as the building blocks of chain compounds called Proteins and Peptides that are among the basic elements of life. Amino acids are linked with peptide bonds. Although both entantiomorphs can be created in the laboratory, only the L-form exists in nature. The 20 amino acids important to life are:

• Leucine

• IsoLeucine

• Lysine

• Methionine

• Phenyalanine

• Threonine

• Tryptophan

• Valine

• Arginine

• Histidine

• Alanine

• Asparagine

• Asparic Acid

• Cysteine

• Glutamine

• Glutamic Acid

• Glycine

• Proline

• Serine

• Tyrosine

http://prowl.rockefeller.edu/aainfo/struct.htm

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Amiella

A possible anamalocarid from China. [no other internet references 010721]

Amiella ornata.

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Amiskiwa

A small -- probably gelatinous -- animal of unknown affinity from the Burgess shale near Field, BC. The preservation of the 5 known specimens leaves much to be desired. The head contains two short tentacles. The body has two small lateral (side) fins and a flattened tail. The gut runs straight from the head almost to the tail. Amiskiwa vaguely resembles a tiny walrus constructed by a magician out of balloons. Amiskiwa was originally described by Walcott who thought he saw three buccal spines as a chaetognath worm. Some workers held out for it being an nemertean. Morris-1977 regards it as being the single known species in an otherwise unknown phylum. Amiskiwa is thought to have been a swimming animal trapped inadvertently in the turbide flows that formed the Burgess Shale deposits. There is one species -- Amiskiwa sagittiformis.{1}

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Amjohrea

Possible Pre-Vendian fossils from the PreCambrian of Central India. Some forms from the area are possibly algal. (10ae,10f)

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Amouslek Formation

An earliest Cambrian limestone from the anti-atlas ranges of Morocco. It overlies the Neoproterozoic Lie-de-vin Formation. It contains trilobites and archeocyanthids.

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Amplectobelua Symbrachiata:

An anamalocarid with faint linear markings on the lateral lobes - setae and/or gills. Faint nodular structures are present. There is evidence of a fan shaped tail. No legs (Uniramous appendages). Hard parts limited to the mouth and forward grasping appendages. The feeding appendages are described as stout and designed for impaling.

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Anabarella

A primitive mollusk? A laterally compressed monoplacophoran with an outer shell layer of aragonitic prisms, spherulites, sclerites and an internal fibrous aragonite layer. Possibly an evolutionary predecessor of the rostroconchs. Found in conjunction with Cloudiniids in the Lowest Cambrian (?) of Spain above a layer with the trace fossil Phycodes pedum

• Anabarella plana

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Anabarella plana Association:

A Fossil assemblage found in Spain. The second oldest of the five associations identified by Fernandez-Remolar in 1999.

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Anabartids

Molluskslike fossils that may be three rayed symmetrical cnidarians. The thecae are assumed to have been made of aragonite. In some species they have been replaced by celestite (SrSO4) and Barite (BaSO4). Others are phosphatic.

• Jacutiochrea tristicha

• Tiksitheca licis

• Cambrotubulus conicus

• Anabarites Modestus

• Anabarites signatus

• Anabarites tricarinatus

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Anabylia

Olenek Number [77] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis. [no other internet references 010721]

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Anaerobe

An organism capable of growth in an Oxygen free environment. Metabolisms are based on fermentation or oxidation using an oxidizing agent other than Oxygen. Some Anaerobes can tolerate the presence of Oxygen. Some can't.

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Anagensis

Cladistic speak for evolution along a single unbranching path. Since there is no branching, there are no "species" to differentiate.

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Anamalocarids

A group of Cambrian animals characterised by a flat body segmented into lobes. With or without a tail. Some have arthropodlike feeding appendages. The animals are often large and were apparently free swimming predators. Some have peculiar rounded mouths with numerous hard, sharp teeth. Some consider them to be a phyllum. Others calss them as arthropods. They include about half a dozen genera of anamalocaris and possibly the peculiar animal Opibiana.

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Anomalocaris

A Lower and Middle Cambrian arthropod(?). It is found in a number of formations. Collins assigns as an arthropod in Class Dinocardia, order Radiodonta It was originally described as several different species from preserved body parts -- especially the shrimplike feeding appendages and the pineapple like mouth identified as Peyotia and thought originally to be a primitive jellyfish. Anomalocaris is known to be segmented with lobelike appendages. There is an odd mouth with pharyngeal teeth. Some anomalocarids appear to have arthropod like legs on some segments. Anomalocarids reach considerable size and are thought to have been free swimming predators. Anamalocarids are thought to include the genera Anomalocaris, Amplectobela, Hurdia, Laggania, and Amiella.

It appears that the claws at least may have grown by moulting as many empty isolated moults are found on Mt Stephen in British Columbia.. It is not so clear that the mouth could have grown by moulting. The skin (cuticle) is only lightly mineralized except for the claws and mouth. The head shield sometimes has an irregular outline -- apparently due to folding of the skin. Reconstructions show a box like head. What held its shape? Hydrostatic pressure? The eye structure is unknown as no details are preserved. They were on stalks. The body consists of a series of overlapping plates. There are flaps on the bottom of the head in back of the mouth. Briggs and Whittington think they are simply the forwardmost body lobes. Each body segement has a lobe on each side that may have been used in swimming. It has been suggested that these lobes are similar to structures in some venobionts. Each segment has gills with four sets of laminae.

• Anomalocaris briggsi. An Anamalocarid from Australia's Emu Bay Shale. It has extensive comb like rows and most parts of the appendage. It is thought possibly to be a filter feeder, but sharp tips on the end of the appendage may have been capable of impaling prey.

• A nathorsti. An anamalocarid described by Collins

• A pennsylvanica. An Anamalocarid known only from feeding appendages.

• Appendage F

http://www.geocities.com/goniagnostus/background3.html

http://www.geocities.com/goniagnostus/species3.html

Anamalocaris canadiensis Laggania Cambria

Anfesta

A small (2cm) discoid Pre-Cambrian form with three large radial lobes separated by a irregular radiating striations. Similar to Albumares except that Anfesta latter has five distinct sublobes positioned between each of the three major lobes and is more discoidal. There is one species Albumares stankovskii - Reported from the Ust-Pinega Formation of the Summer Coast region of the White Sea{10,14} Number [35] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Anhuiella

A proterozoic wormlike fossil from China. It is found in the Nanguanling Formation. The age of the formation is thought to be about 700 Ma. Thought to be Sabellidites, Paleolina or Annelids.

• Anhuiella xiwafangensis -- Nanguanling Formation , China

• Anhuiella sinensis -- Jiuliqiao formation in Jinagsu and Anhui provinces, China

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Antagmus

Taxonomy (per The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology)

• Phylum Arthropoda

• Class Trilobita Walch, 1771

• Order Ptychopariida, Swinnerton, 1915

• Suborder Ptychoparina Richter, 1933

• Superfamily Ptychopariacea Matthew, 1887

• Family Ptychopariidae Matthew 1887

• SubFamily Antagminae Hupe, 1953

• Genus Antamus Resser 1936 A"typical Antagminaed trilobite. (Frankly all Antagminidae look much the same to me) from the Lower Cambrian of Eastern North America

  • A typicalis Billings, 1861

  • A gigas Rasietti, Quebec

  • A sp Colorado Plateau

  • A dapingensis, China

  • A merus

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Antarctica

An area where Vendian and Lower Cambrian fossils have been found Archeocyathids are reported from the Hansen Member of the Fairweather Formation in the Shackelton Glacier area.

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Antenna

Structures on the heads of many (not all) arthropods including trilobites, crustacea, and insects. Antenna are always paired. Some classes (e.g. Crustacea) have two pairs. They generally extend forward of the animal and are known to be sensory organs although the exact nature of what they sense and how they sense it is not entirely clear. It appears that they can include mixtures of touch, air motion, heat, vibration (sound) and odor (smell/taste) sensors.

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Anthraxolite

A glassy carbonaceous material similar to Anthracite. It is thought to be derived from metamorphasis of petroleum. Anthraxolite is harder than anthracite. While it will burn, it tends to have a high ash content. Attempts to exploit Anthraxolite commercially as a fuel have not been successful. Bacterial microfossils are found in anthraxolite in Bohemia.

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Anti-Atlas Mountains, Morocco

A modern region where possible late pre-Cambrian fossils have been found. The fossils are medusoids with no clear resemblance to other known medusoids. The Anti-atlas mountains are south of and parallel to the higher Atlas Range. They have a typical height of around 1000 meters. A good sequence spanning the Cambrian-Precambrian boundary is exposed near the town of Tiout. It includes a radiodatable volcanic ash bed very close to the boundary. The deposits are shallow water dolostones and shales of the latest Neoproterozoic Lie-de-vin formation capped by trilobite and archeocyathid bearing limestones of the Amouslek Formation.

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Apex Chert

A black chert containing fairly well preserved bacteria found near Marble Bar in NorthWest Australia. The fossils are found in 1mm pebbles in a conglomerate deposited between datable lavas of the Duffer and Panorama formations. The bacterial fossils in the pebbles thus can be radioactively dated as older than 3460 million years. Eleven species of bacteria have been identified including probable cyanobacteria.

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Apomorphy

Cladistic jargon for a characteristic derived from a Plesiomorphic ("primitive") characteristic in some common ancestor.

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Appendage F

Anamalocarid feeding appendage found in North America that are not associated with known body specimens. It is one of two kinds of anamalocarid appendages found in the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale. The other is Anomalocaris which was originally thought to be a shrimp like crustacean and was eventually tied to body fossils of Anomalocaris. Anomalocaris appendages have a pair of spikes on each segment, each with opposed small spines about half way down their length. Appendage F appendages have a single spike on each segment with numerous small, forward facing spines arranged as a comb-like structure.

http://www.geocities.com/goniagnostus/background2.html

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Arachnids

Arthropods with four sets of legs on the head in back of the mouth and two sets of appendages forward of the mouth. Modern arachnids are strictly land dwellers -- spiders and mites. No marine arachnids are known, but the class Chelicerata that includes the arachnids includes many marine animals. The earliest known Chelicerata date back to the Middle Cambrian. The Subclass Merostomata includes several orders of Sea Scorpions, Horseshoe crabs, etc. Only the Order Aglaspida is known from the Cambrian. The Earliest known Aglaspid is Beckwithia from the Middle Cambrian of Utah. The earliest known arachnids are terrestrial forms from the Silurian.

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Archaea

A Kingdom of single celled animals visually somewhat similar to bacteria. Archaea, like prokaryotes, have no cell nucleus and a single chromosome. On the other hand some metabolic processes are more similar to Eukaryotes. Archaea (metabacteria) are noted for their tolerance of extreme temperatures and odd chemical environments. Modern Archea are found in 100C water around thermal vents, in salt evaporation ponds, and in similar unexpected environments as well as in open ocean environments. Some archea are photosynthetic using a red sensitive compound called bacteriorhodopsin rather than the familiar chlorophyll used by plants. Specific Archaea characteristics:

• Cell walls of a variety of materials including Psuedopeptidoglycan and minor chemical variants on Peptidoglycan as well as Other materials. Prokaryote cells walls are always made of Peptidoglycan. Eukaryotes also have a variety of cell wall materials -- never Peptidoglycan.

• Archaea fatty acid links are based on ether bonds rather than ester bonds as in prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

• RNA Polymerases are different than Prokaryotes which in turn are different than Eukaryotes.

• Archaea codon used to start a protein (AUG Codon) is the same as Eukaryotes, different than Prokaryotes.

• Metabolic genes different than either Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes.

Some theorists believe that the archaea represent the most primitive current life forms. Other theorists believe that the archaea are highly evolved in order to survive the challenging environments within which they are currently found. Some theorists believe that prokaryotes and Archaea split early in the history of life and that Eukaryotes evolved from the Archaea about 2,000 Ma.

• http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/archaea.html

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Archaeagnostus

A Spinagnostid agnostid trilobite from the Lower Cambrian Schodack Formation of New York, The glabella and pygidium are simple and are surrounded by a wide raised band and a broad raised rim. Other members of the family are mostly Middle Cambrian and are found worldwide.{3}

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Archaeichinium

North Carolina Number [108] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Archangelia

No data available on the Internet - White Sea. Number [26] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Archeoclada

A filament from the 900-1000 million year old Lakhanda Formation in Siberia. It is thought possibly to be a Xanthophyte (Yellow-Green Algae). [No Google hits 010801]

• Archeoclada ramosa

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Archeocyathids

A sessile, reef building animal that appears at the beginning of the Lower Cambrian or end of the neoproterozoic. Most species died out in the Middle Cambrian. A few hung on until the end of the Cambrian. The are widespread in North America (Laurentia). They are common in the Poleta formation of Nevada and California and are also reported from Newfoundland and the Hansen Member of the Fairweather Formation in Antartica. of the They are conical or cylindrical with numerous cells separated by irregular septae. Maximum size of most species was a few cm. The smallest species are only a mm and the largest approach 50cm. The central cavity was empty or had no hard parts. The two walls are porous and are connected by septa (vertical) and or tabula(horizontal). The relationship of Archeocyathids to other animals is a matter of considerable contention. They have been assigned by various authors to the sponges, protozoa (foraminifers), coelenterates, receptaculitieds, and even the calcareous algae. Some authors also consider them to be a separate phylum. Current opinion is that they were probably sponges. There are two major groups \ the Regulares and the Irregualrs. Six orders., 120 families, and over 300 Genera have been defined

Archeocyathids included disk like and branching forms. Many had basal prongs or a holdfast to tie them to the substrate. They appear to have been predominately inhabitants of warm, shallow water where they formed extensive reefs.

• Aldanocyathus - Siberia - Tommotian

• Archeocyathus

• Cambrocyathus

• Ethmophylum

• Oklitchichicathus - Siberia - Tommotian

• Loculicyathus voznesenskii -- Siberia Altay-Sayan Foldbelt

• Mikhnocyathus irregularis -- Siberia Altay-Sayan Foldbelt

• Sakhacyathus karpinskii -- Siberia Altay-Sayan Foldbelt

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Archeodiscina

A Lower Cambrian acritarch(?) or diatom(?) from the Carapathian region

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Archeoellipsoides

A widely distributed proterozoic microfossil. Present in the Yudoma Formation of Eastern Siberia, but not the Svetlay formation.

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Archaeogastropoda

An order of primitive gastropods including the modern abalone and limpet. Archeogastropoda have unspecialized teeth, two nephridia/auricles; and have gill filaments on both sides of the central axis. Might include the tomottian form Aldanella. But the earliest firmly identified Archeogastropods are from the Upper Cambrian.

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Arencolites

A vertical burrow found in the Chapel Island formation in Newfoundland. Arencolites is a simple U shaped burrow -- probably a dwelling burrow rather than a feeding burrow. Different species are identified based on the size of the U.

http://www.emory.edu/COLLEGE/ENVS/research/ichnology/Arenicolites.htm

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Argaulos

A trilobite [no Google hits 010811 -- check spelling]

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Argon Dating

A refinement of Potassium/Argon radioactive dating technique based on comparing the amounts of Argon isotopes 39 and 40 present after neutron activation of Potassium. Neutron activation converts some of the normally stable K39 isotope to Ar39. The total K39 present can be computed from the amount of radiation used and the amount of Ar39 produced. The amount of K40 initially present can be computed. Also, because the key measurement is the ratio of two Argon isotopes, it is not necessary to completely extract all the Potassium from the material being evaluated in order to get a reading. The technique can also be used to recover information on the thermal history of the sample by evaluating Ar-Ar ratios of gases released at various temperatures.

http://www.umich.edu/~mmpp/services/ArArDating/ArAr-App.html

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Arizona

A state where neoproterozoic and early Proterozoic deposits are found. Older sediments underlie the Tapeats Sandstone in the Grand Canyon and possibly some ancilliary canyons such as Grand Wash. Cambrian sediments are found in the Grand Canyon, ancilliary canyons and in the Abrigo Formation South of Tucson. 1.2 Billion year old terrestrial terrestrial biological material reported from the neoproterozoic beds. Except for the Grand Canyon, older rocks are found primarily in the Southern and Western parts of the state. A well studied late neoproterozoic-Lower Cambrian sequence is found to the Southwest of Arizona in Sonora.

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Arkarua

A precambrian disk like form with a raised center, a number of radial ridges on the rim, and a five pointed central depression marked with radial lines of 5 small dots from the middle of the disk center. Arkarua adami is 3 to 10mm across. Because of the five-fold symmetry, Arkarua has been proposed by Gehling, Waggoner, and others as a possible precursor to the Echinoderms. Extremists claim it is not only an echinoderm, but is specifically an Edrioasteroid. However, all known specimens are casts that give no clue to the internal structure. There is no sign of the Calcium Carbonate "steromes" (plates) that are diagnostic of echinoderms. Neither can a mouth be identified. Note also that many early echinoderms such as Helioplacus are not radially symmetric and do not possess five fold symmetry. McNamenin/Sielacher have proposed Arkarua as a conventional main line Ediacaran with five fold symmetry and non-iterated cell families.{6,14} -

• Arkarua adami - Ediacara Number [98] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vendian/arkarua.html

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Armillifera

White Sea Number [70] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Arthropods

A Phylum consisting of a segmented animals with a shell. Most animals have appendages of one sort or another replicated on several segments. The name comes from the Greek words arthron (jointed) and pod (foot). The Phylum consists of four modern classes -- Crustaceans, Myriapods, Arachnids and Insects as well as a fifth class -- Onychophora -- that is sometimes considered to be a separate Phylum. Paleontologists recognize four subphyla -- trilobita (extinct), chelicerata, crustacea, uniramia. Careful analysis of forms from the Burgess and Maotsianshan Shale have revealed a number of very early arthropods or possible arthropods that do not resemble each other especially closely and do not appear to be members of the normal classes/supbyla either. These are listed here as Uncertain Early Arthropods

There are about 900,000 modern species of arthropod. Some analysts believe that arthropods are Polyphyletic (i.e. Originate from more than one basic precursor form). They are eucoelomate with hemocoel. They generally have three major body subdivisions with some subdivisions made from fused segments. The nomenclature for the body subdivisions varies from class to class. Arthropods have chitinous shells sometimes strengthened with calcium carbonate. They grow by a process of moulting old shells.

Although not all arthropods can fly, all known flying invertebrates are arthropods. The size of modern arthropods varies from 0.1mm to several meters.

Arthropods have some similarities with the Annelid worms. Both phyla are segmented. The nervous systems are similar. Both have spiral cleavage. Differences include a (relatively) fixed number of segments in arthropod species; annelids have septa. Arthropods have a reduced Coelomic cavity. Arthropods have an open circulatory system and different respiration system. Arthropods have jointed appendages, an exoskeleton, and compound eyes. Annelids have cilia. Onychophora have some intermediate characteristics resembling arthropods in their head, antennae, cuticle, mouth and mandibles and worms in their eyes, "legs", and segmentation.

Fossil Arthropod Classes include:

• Merostomata

• Subclass Xiphosurida

• Pycnogonida

• Trilobiota

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Arumberia

A dubious sacklike Vendian fossil or pseudofossil somewhat resembling Ernietta and Baikalina. From Australia - Alice Springs. Presumably found in the Arumbera Sandstone(10be-bh).

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Aspidella

An oval medusoid? Found in groups. It may be a holdfast impression rather than a body fossil. Its legitimacy has been questioned, but the consensus is that it is probably an actual fossil. - Newfoundland. (10aq-10as, 14) Number [75] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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'Aspidella hatyspytia'

Olenek, White Sea. Probably not the same genus as Aspidella.(10aw) Number [76] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Astropolechnus hispanicus

An ichnofossil from the Lower Cambrian of Spain, Normandy, and Sardinia. It is apparently a burrow and is found on both sides of the Tommatian-Adabanian boundary.

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Atdabanian

The earliest faunal stage from the Early Cambrian of Siberia and East Asia. Corresponds roughly to the Fallotopsis and Nevadia zone in North America. It follows the Tommotian stage. It precedes the Botomian stage/ Lenian stage. The Chenjiang fauna from China is late Atdabanian Harland dated the stage at 560-553.7Ma in 1989, but the dates would probably be younger today.

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Atlantic Province

A name applied in the 19th Century to a collection of early paleozoic fossil sites in extreme Eastern North America. It was observed that the fauna found in these sites was distinctive and differed substantially from that of the "Pacific Province" which occupied most of the continent. Atlantic Province fossils resemble faunas now found in areas across the Atlantic Ocean. It is now believed that these sites were not part of North America in the early Paleozoic and were attached later as a result of continental drift. Most of the sites are believed to have been part of a small Cambrian continent called Avalonia. Most of the remainder were associated with an island arc that apparently lay between Avalonia and Laurentia (North America) or a region of somewhat hazy origin called Taconia.

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Ausia

A curious vendian form -- basically a hollow cylinder taping to a cone on one end. The surface is covered with circular rows of depressions ("windows") that taper into ovals toward the conical point. Ausia Fenestrata, named for the town of Aus in Namibia, is the only Vendian animal with pores although there is some question whether the depressions completely penetrate the animal's wall. It may be a primitive sponge. - Namibia Number [22] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Austinvillia

Taxonomy (per The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology)

• Phylum Arthropoda

• Class Trilobita Walch, 1771

• Order Ptychopariida, Swinnerton, 1915

• Superfamily Ptychopariacea Matthew, 1887

• Family Ptychopariidae Matthew 1887

• SubFamily Antagminae Hupe, 1953

• Genus Austinvillia Resser 1938

A"typical Antagminaed trilobite". (Frankly all Antagminidae look much the same to me) from the Lower Cambrian of Eastern North America. Has shallower glabellar and axial furrows than Antagmus. Has an almost obsolete, regularly curve border furrow delimiting long flat border from a short preglabellar field. (Refer to the diagrams in the Treatise ...)

• A virginica, Quebec

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Autochthonous

When two sets of beds that have been mechanically intermixed after depositation (e.g. By thrust faulting), the beds that appear to be in their original locations are termed "Autochthonous" whereas those that have intruded in from elsewhere are termed Allochthonous ("far-travelled").

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Autotroph

An organism that obtains all its carbon from Carbon Dioxide. Contrast with Heterotrophs that require at least some organic compounds.

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Avalonia

A Cambrian continent(?) whose current rocks are now found in Eastern Newfoundland, Northern Nova Scotia, (Southeastern Nova Scotia consists of marine rocks apparently associated with later Paleozoic(?) Gondawanaland [North Africa] rather than Avalonia)New Brunswick, Eastern Massachusetts, and Rhode Island as well as Greenland (?), Ireland(?), England,Belgium, and Wales. Some sources assert that Avalonia was orignally part of Gondwanaland after the breakup of Pannotia in the Neoproterozoic and was subsequently fractured off Gonwanaland in the Ordovician, then split into two pieces during the Mesozoic. Examination of Avalonian rocks in England leads to the conclusion that Avalonia itself was assembled from a collection of smaller terranes appended to a Proterozoic supercontinent.

Avalonian (named for Newfoundland's Avalon peninsula) rocks may possibly may be found in Eastern North Carolina where North American rocks are thrust over beds of similar age non-Laurentian fossils. A few windows exist where the alien rocks are exposed. The faunas of the lower beds are not well enough known to identify the beds as Avalonian. The "Carolina terrane" consists of volcanic rocks and sedimentary rocks of volcanic origin that contain Ediacaran and Atlantic Province Cambrian fossils. Post Cambrian Avalonian rocks are also known from Eastern Maine. Devonian and Silurian rocks of the Upper Connecticut River valley seem to have been deposited about an island arc that existed between Laurentia and Avalonia, but no Cambrian rocks are known from the sequence. The Lower Cambrian-Cambrian boundary in Eastern Newfoundland is set at the appearance of the ichnofossil Trichophycus pedum in the Global Stratotype Section and Point in the Chapel Island Formation at Fortune Head, Nfld. Avalonia apparently attached itself to North America in the Ordovician, was later attached to Europe in the Permian and then was fractured when the Supercontinent of Laurasia broke up and the modern Atlantic Ocean opened. Return to Early Cambrian Geography

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Ayala, Francisco J

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Aysheaia

A small wormlike middle Cambrian animal from the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It has 10 pairs of spiked. annulated legs attached to the ten body segments. The animal is segmented, and looks somewhat like a catepillar constructed by the Michelin tire man with a few spines tacked on. It apparently lived on or among sponges. Aysheaia is thought to possibly be a primitive Onchophoran -- a modern phylum with about 60 genera somewhat resembling both the Annelids and the Arthropods. The Onchophorae have no fossil record except (possibly) Aysheaia{1}, possibly Xenusion and just possibly (according to Conway Morris) Hallucigenia.

• Aysheaia pedunculata Walcott 1911

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/payshia.htm

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Backbone Ranges Formation

A Proterozoic formation found in the mountains of Northwest Canada. It overlies the Ingta Formation, and underlies the Vampire Formation. The rocks are clastics deposited in marine shelf to near shore continental environments. Ichnofossils are found in the marine beds.

• Mackenzie Mountains

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Backlundtoppen

Formation fossiliferous cherts of late preCambrian age 650Ma(Knoll 1989)

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Bacteria

Primitive single celled lifeforms. Bacteria are Prokaryotes. They differ from Eukaryotes in several respects. Prokaryotes have comparatively little DNA and what they have is scattered thought the cells rather than walled off in a nucleus. They lack internal structures known as plastids and mitochondria. Prokaryote reproduction is asexual. Probable Cyanobacteria are found in deposits dating from 3800ma in West Australia and possible bacterial remains are found in even older rocks in Greenland. Early organic fossils are also found in calcareous masses in the 3200ma Fig Tree Chert of Swaziland. They appear to be bacterial. The include strings of bacteria and globular entities. Objects interpreted as photosynthetic cyanobacteria are found in the Fig Tree Group and in other banded iron deposits that are found between 3200Ma and 2000Ma. It is thought that photosynthetic cyanobacteria oxygenated the atmosphere around 2000Ma. The Prokaryotes are divided into two groups -- the Eubacteria and the Archaebacteria. Chemicals thought to be derived from Eukaryotes Cyanobacteria have been found in the 2,500Ma McRhae Shale of Australia The first Eukaryotes may be It has been theorized that early Eukaryotes evolution was strongly influenced by directly absorbing Prokaryotic genetic material into their cells.

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Bacteriorhodopsin

A chemical compound used instead of chloropyll in some single celled creatures to perform photosysnthetic conversion of carbon dioxide and water into sugars.

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Baikalina

A sacklike possible fossil from the late pre-Cambrian found in the Lake Baikal region of Siberia. The fossil (if it is a fossil) vaguely resembles Arumberia and Ernietta.

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Baltica

A Cambrian continent consisting of modern Scandinavia, Poland, Ukraine, Moldavia and Russia East to the White Sea region. Baltica is noted for excellent exposures of the Pre-Cambrian/Cambrian boundary including good late pre-Cambrian faunas. Return to Early Cambrian Geography

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Banded Iron Formations

Distinctive rock formations found worldwide dating from about 3500 to 1800 MA. They are thought to result from the generation of Oxygen by early one celled plants from water and Carbon Dioxide. The Oxygen is thought to have promptly reacted with Iron in solution in the oceans to form Ferric Oxide ("rust") which is not water soluble and therefore precipitated out as Hematite (Fe2O3) or Magnetite (Fe3O4). The banding is thought to be due to seasonal changes in production of Oxygen. Depositation seems to have occurred primarily in basins . The total amount of Oxygen locked in Banded Iron deposits is estimated to be perhaps 20 times the current atmospheric O2 level. The end of Banded Iron depositation also corresponds to the end of massive Uranium Oxide and Iron Sulfide deposits and is thought to represent the beginning of Oxygenation of the atmosphere.

Banded Iron Formations are subdivided into Algoma types -- lenticular deposits associated with graywackes and volcanic rocks in Eugeoclinical belts and more extensive Superior types deposited with clastics in miogeoclinal belts.

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Banffia

An arthropod? known only from the Burgess Shale and Chengjiang faunas of the Lower to Middle Cambrian. The animals have a bivalved shell with an eight segment tail ending in a round paddle. The segmentation is striking. Walcott reported that one specimen had two rather strong hooks at the tail end. The genus Banffia has been placed in the class Vetulicolida (a class of arthropods) by Chen and Zhou.

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Barney Hill Shale

The Barney Hill Shale is thought 1.5 to 1.7 Billion years old and contains reported organic chemicals indicating the presence of advanced bacteria (Eukaryotes). One report indicates well preserved body fossils of filamentaceous bacteria at 1500Ma. A second reports well characterized biomarker chemicals at 1640Ma.

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Barophiles

Bacteria that require high pressures for growth

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Bartolerant

Bacteria that will grow at atmospheric pressure but that prefer higher pressures.

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Bathynotellus

A trilobite with convex glabella, facial sutures, very long genal spines and a spine on the occipital ring. 11 thorax segments with small spines, and two long spines on the first of three vestigial segments on the pygidium. Triangular pygidium with 5 faint rings and a faint, narrow border. Found in the Lower Middle Cambrian or Arctic Eurasia. Similar to the North American Bathynotus, but with a smaller more triangular pygidium and the final three thoracic segments fused

• B yermolaevi form Novya Zemyla

Taxonomy (per The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology)

• Phylum Arthropoda

• Class Trilobita Walch, 1771

• Order Redlichiida Richter, 1933

• Suborder Bathynotina Lochman-Balk, nov

• Family Bathynotidae Hupe, 1953

• Genus Batynotellus Lermonotva, 1940

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Bathynotia

SubOrder Bathynotia A small subgroup of the Redlichid trilobites from the Lower and Middle Cambrian of North America, and Eurasia. There are facial sutures, with long genal spines, wide eye ridges, rather large pygidia, 13 thorax segments with the 11th thoracic segment strongly developed with long spines. The 12th and 13th segments may be fused to the 11th. There are only two genera -- Bathynotus and Bathynotellus. Taxonomy (per The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology)

• Phylum Arthropoda

• Class Trilobita Walch, 1771

• Order Redlichiida Richter, 1933

• Suborder Bathynotina Lochman-Balk, nov

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Bathynotus

A trilobite with broad glabella with nearly straight front, facial sutures, very long genal spines and very short spines on the occipital ring as well as each segment. 11 thorax segments with small spines becoming longer on rear segments, and two long spines on the first of three vestigial segments on the pygidium. Has very long genal spines. Triangular pygidium with 5 faint rings and a faint, narrow border. Found in the Lower Middle Cambrian of Arctic Eurasia. Similar to the Arctic Bathynotellus, but with a semicircular pygidium without spines. The 12th and 13th thoracic segments are small and might be fused to the 11th. former identifications Peltura, Olenus

• Bathynotus kueichouensis, Kwichow, Guizhou, CHina

• Bathynotus sp, Lincoln County, NV (disappears at the Lower-Cambrian boundary)

• Bathynotus holopyga Hall, VT

Taxonomy (per The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology)

• Phylum Arthropoda

• Class Trilobita Walch, 1771

• Order Redlichiida Richter, 1933

• Suborder Bathynotina Lochman-Balk, nov

• Family Bathynotidae Hupe, 1953

• Genus Bathynotus Hall, 1860

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Beck Springs Dolomite

A formation dating from about 1.3 billion years ago. The Beck Springs Dolomite consists of about 200 meters of blue-grey "cherry dolomite". It appears to represent the remains of a tidal carbonate platform.that covered the Southern part of the Death Valley region of California. Exposures are found in the Panamint Range, the Kingston Range and possibly to the East of the Kingston Range. The best known exposure is in the Kingston Range where a black chert near the top of the formation yields well preserved eukaryotic bacteria. The bacteria include 10 um spherical single cells, stromatolitic mats, and cyanoalgae chains about 2uMeter across and 100uMeter or more in length. The Beck Springs unconformally overlies the Crystal Springs Formation and is unconformably overlain by the Kingston Peak formation. Both of these are conglomerate and shale formations with no known fossils.

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Beckwithia typa Resser:

A trilobite like arthropod from the Middle Cambrian Marjum formation of Utah. Beckwithia is actually an Mersomstome. It is possibly the earliest known representative of a Subphylum/Superclass that includes the sea scorpions, horseshoe crabs, spiders and mites. Beckwithia has a phosphatic shell, six pairs of legs on the head; large eyes on a comparatively large head shield; twelve thoracic segments; and a spine on the rearmost segment. The head and body are covered with a number of tiny bumps.

• Beckwithia typa Resser - Utah -- Marjum Formation

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Belt Supergroup

Shallow water sandstones and carbonates rocks of mid Proterozoic (1.4Ga) age in Northeastern Idaho, NorthWestern Montana and British Columbia. Stromatolites have been recognized there for a century. Microfossils have been identified as carbonaceous ribbons up to 12cm in length and 2mm wide. Other carbonaceous objects include lanceolate forms, coiled forms, curved ribbons and branched filaments.

Beltanella

Ediacara, Finnmark, Namibia, North China, NW Canada, Podolia. Number [52] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Beltanelliformis

A discoidal form up to 3cm in diameter often found in large groups on the same bedding plane. Beltanelliformis brunsae NW Canada{14}

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Bergaueria

A Lower Cambrian Fossil shaped vaguely like a California Poppy. An shallow open conical form with no obvious base or organs. Although sometimes treated as a trace fossil, it is unclear what it really represents. Some authors feel that it is the resting burrow of a coelenterate (Sea Anemone). It first appears in the very late proterozoic at the Vendian/Tommotoian boundary. Found in the Lower Cambrian of of the Lake Louise/Kicking Horse Pass area of British Columbia/Alberta and in the American Southwest, Sweden. Arizona - Abrigo shale.; newfoundland

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Bergstroem

Jan Bergstroem (the "oe" representing the Scandanavian slashed o) is a Swedish paleontologist who has proposed that a primitive group of animals existed called procoelomates from which the various Coelomate phyla evolved rapidly at the end of the Neoproterozoid. The coelomate phyla include Lophophoia (Bachiopods); Articulata (Arthropods); Molluscata; and Dueterostoma (echinodermata, chordata). Molecular "clocks" indicate that the primitive members of these groups differ very little. Bergstroem considers Procoeloma to be an Infrakingdom -- a collection of animals that is a major subdivision of a Kingdom, In this case, the kingdom is Metazoa (multicelled animals) and Procoeloma is an infrakingdom because it contains the root animals from which a number of phyla originated

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Billingsella

A mid-Cambrian and later articulate brachiopod. Billingsella is an Orthid brachiopod that is possibly descended from Nisusia. Billingsella has numerous radial striations crossing concentric ridges. Billingsella is thought to be the ancestor of all other articulate brachiopods except Nisusia. Billingsella are often found in large numbers but few other plants or animals are associated with it.

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Biramous appendages

Arthropod structures consisting of a paired gill and multisegmented leg. Biramous appendages are best known from trilobites where all the legs -- both on the head and the thorax -- are parts of biramous structures, but the structures are also found in other early arthropods.

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Bitter Springs Formation

A formation found in Australia dated as roughly 0.8 to 1.0 billion years. It contains well preserved fossils of eukaryotidc bacteria. About 30 species of microfossil including a dozen cyanobacteria have been identified from cherts in the Bitter Springs formation. The outcrops are in Central Australia North of the Amadeus Basin. They consist of dark dolomites and limestones with layers of laminated black chert that contains the fossils. The Bitter Springs faunas are regarded as the best preserved known Proterozoic microfauna.

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/precambrian/bittersprings.html

http://www.uni-muenster.de/GeoPalaeontologie/Palaeo/Palbot/seite1.html

http://www.astrobiology.ucla.edu/ESS116/L15/1519%20Bitter%20Springs.jpg

http://www.astrobiology.ucla.edu/ESS116/L15/L15.html

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Bicella

Apparently a Lower Cambrian(?) antagminid trilobite Genus Bicella Rasetti, 1951. species Bicella bicensis Resser 1936

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"Big Burrow"

Long featureless cylindrical burrows up to 10cm in diameter found in Lower Cambrian Abrigo and Bright Angel Shales in Arizona. There is no identified animal in the fauna large enough to create these burrows.

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Bilatera

A taxonomic entity that includes all bilaterally symmetric organisms. The two principle divisions of the Bilatera are the Protostomes and Deuterostomes

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Biskop's Conglomerate

A neoproterozoic formation found below the Moelv Tillite (A Varanger age formation) that contains acritarchs Papillomembrana and Ericiasphaera. It is thought to indicate that the diversification of large ornamented acritarchs just prior to the appearance of Ediacaran faunas may have started between the two Varanger glacial episodes.

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Bomakellia

An odd 8 cm late preCambrian form known from a single specimen. It consists of a "cephalon" (head shield) with an arcuate "mouth?". This is possibly the best candidate for a protoarthropod in the neoproterozoic. There is a long narrow central shield flanked by 10 ornamented side flaps. It has been proposed by Waggoner as an early arthropod possibly related to the Cambrian form Anomalocaris. - White Sea Number [87] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Bonnaria

A Corynexochiod trilobite found in the Lower Cambrian of North America. Similar to Bonnia, but with a narrower rear end of the glabella (head shield).

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Bonnia

A Corynexochiod trilobite found in the Lower Cambrian of North America, Greenland and East Asia. Small, strongly arched, featureless glabella. Large eyes with 8 thoracic segments and a large pygidium fused from 4 segments. Bonnia is also found in the Middle Cambrian.

• Bonnia sp -- Upper Lower Cambrian Henson Gletscher formation of Northern Greenland

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Bonniella

A Corynexochiod trilobite found in the Lower Cambrian of Eastern North America. Resembles Bonnia, but has a small extension on each side of the pygidium behind the second segment. Known from the L Cambrian Dunham dolomite, Georgia, VT

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Bonniopsis

A Corynexochiod trilobite found in the Lower Cambrian of Ellsmere Island. Resembles Bonnia but the front of the glabella is more tapered and the pygidium has no margin.

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Bonata

White Sea Number [68] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Bonavista Formation

Early Cambrian marine rocks found in Eastern Newfoundland. The Bonavista Formation is found above the Random formation in the Random Island area and is overlain by the Smith Point Formation. It is not present in outrcrops on the SW corner of the Burin Peninsula.

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Botomian

A Siberian/East Asian faunal zone from the late Early Cambrian (and Early Middle Cambrian?). It follows the Atdabanian and precedes theToyonian. It corresponds to the Nevadella (?) and Ollenelus zones of North America

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Brachina

Ediacara Number [56] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Brachiopods

A phylum originating in the late pre-Cambrian and found through the present. Brachiopods superficially resemble pelecypod mollusks "clams" but are quite different internally. They always have two shells which are phosphatic in some genera and calcareous in others. Brachiopods are always bilaterally symmetric about a line perpendicular to the hinge line between the two cells. The most primitive forms are inarticulate brachiopods closely resembling the modern form Lingula found in the late pre-Cambrian Belt group of Montana A somewhat more complex form, the articulate brachiopods, appeared in the Lower Cambrian. Both types of brachiopods were very common from the Cambrian through the Paleozoic and both persist to this day.

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Bradgatia

Charnwood Forest, Newfoundland Number [7] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Bradoriids

Primitive arthropods from the Cambrian. They have been found in North America, Europe, China, and the former Soviet Union.

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Branchiocaris

Branchiocaris is a soft-shelled arthropod known form the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It is regarded as a primitive arthropod \ possibly an ancestor of the crustacea. It has a probably hinged oval carapace, two antennae and a long spike like tail. The shell extends beyong the forward appendages. There are two antennae and three legs on the head. There is also a pair of "principal appendages \ one of which might terminate in a claw. The body has as many as 40 segments with flap like appendages There are more appendages than segments, perhaps as many as two per segment. There are no eyes. There are two broad blades in back of the Telson. There are spines on the end of the principal appenages which Briggs suggests might be chelae.{1}

Five specimens are known from the Burgess Shale and it is reported from other localities as well

• B pretiosa Resser 1929

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Brazil

Cloudiniid forms are known from the late PreCambrian of Brazil where they were found in a limestone quarry at Ladario near Corumba in the state of Mato Grosso. Identified by Octavio Barbosa and later by de Morais, the formal description was done by Berlin and Sommer who associated the fossils with the Cambrian calcareous algae Aulophycos. Zaine and Fairchild subsequently observed the similarity to Namibian forms and reassigned Aulophycus lucianoi as Cloudinia lucianoi. The fossils are slightly conical tubes with numerous circumferential ridges resulting from the (bottomless) cup in cup structure of the shells. (10q) (14) Corumbella is probably from the same area.

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Bright Angel Shale

Lower to Middle Cambrian sometimes ferriginous shales, siltstones and sandstones found in the Grand Canyon and adjacent areas. They include definite marine fossils as well as spore like polyads, tetrads and dyads which appear to be spores of probable non-marine algae. They seem to be intermediate between known terrestrial spores from later periods and some unassigned Cambrian Age tetrads. They apparently are algal cysts rather than typical marine acritarchs.

The Bright Angel Shale overlies the Lower Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone. The Bright Angel Shale is roughly equivalent to the Pioche Shale of the Great Basin and the Carerra and Latham/Chambless/Cadiz sequence of the Death Valley region.

See: http://www2.bc.edu/~strother/gc.html.

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Brigus Formation

Early Cambrian marine rocks found in Eastern Newfoundland. The Brigus Formation is found above the Smith Point formation in the Random Island area. It unconformally overlies the Random Formation in outrcrops on the SW corner of the Burin Peninsula. The Brigus is unconformally overlain by the Middle Cambrian Chamberlin's Brook Formation. The Brigus formation is a calcerous rock unit exposed in SouthEast Newfoundland that has small shelly fauna fossils and a few trilobite fragments. It is underlain unconformally by Random Formation Sandstones

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Brioverian Chert

A precambrian formation from the Bohemian region of Czechoslovakia that contains recognizable microfossils. There are two separate assemblages, one in chert and another in anthraxolite (a graphitic anthracite like, carbon rich, mineral that is harder than anthracite and is generally a poor fuel with high ash content).

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Bristolia

An ollenelid trilobite alleged to differ from Olenellus by having an hour glass shaped glabella, pyriform frontal lobe, advanced genal spines, and a rim narrowing in front. At least three species are known from the Western US. B Bristolenis has moderately advanced genal spines resulting in a more or less rectangular cephalon. B Anteros is a slightly younger form with very advanced genal spines. Bristolia is found in the late Lower Cambrian of the Western US. B insolens is similar to B anteros but the cephalon is semicircular rather than rectangular..

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British Columbia, Canada

A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. The localities are primarily in the Central part of the province both North to South and East to West -

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Britanny

An area of France where Vendian fossils have been found

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Bronicella

Podolia Number [48] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Brock & Madigan: Authors of "Biology of Microorganisms." The text is said to describe amino acid substitutions in proteins that allow different, more heat resistent foldings.

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Brønlund Fjord Group

A Lower Cambrian sequence of carbonates and sandstones from Northern Greenland containing Olenellid trilobites.

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Brooks Parsimony Analysis

An analysis technique of distribution of animal forms. It has been applied to Vendian faunas with results similar to those from PAE. (10)

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Brooksella

A medusoid found in the 1930s in Nankoweap formation sediments unconformally underlying the Lower Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone in the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in Arizona. Brooksella seems to be a sort of cover genus for early medusoids found prior to the general recognition of pre-Cambrian faunas. The Grand Canyon specimens are assigned to Brooksella canyonensis. Brooksella alternata is reported from the Middle Cambrian of Alabama. These creatures may be true jellyfish or may be related to other pre-Cambrian medusoids. It has also been suggested that Brooksella canyonensis is not a fossil at all.

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Buen Formation

A lower Cambrian formation form Northern Greenland. Home of the Sirius Passet fauna. It is roughly equivalent to the Nevadella zone of the Waucoban sequence

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Buenellus Higginsi

A Lower Cambrian trilobite from Northern Greenland. Characteristic fossil of the Nevadella zone in that region.

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Buick, Roger

A colorful geologist/paleontologist currently at the Univeristy of Sydney (Australia) who is noted for his extensive work with very old sedimentary rocks in the Pilbara Craton area of West Australia. He did undergraduate and doctoral work at the University of West Australia and graduate work at Harvard and the US NASA. He has published extensively on the sedimentology, geochemistry and paleontology of the oldest well preserved sedimentary rock sequences currently known.

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'bulbousfrond'

Ben Waggoner's name for a form that has not been formally described. A frondlike fossil with a thick stalk. Relationship to other forms is unknown. Figured by McMenamin, 1993. Flinders Ranges of South Australia. - Ediacara Number [15] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Bunyerichnus

A "ring medusoid of Ediacaran age apparently figured by Cloud and Glaessner as Bunyerichnus dalgarnoi in an article in Science in 1982. McMennamin uses it as an example because of its resemblance to a pseudofossil created by a tethered blade of grass.{14}

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Burgess Shale

A gray/black Middle Cambrian Shale found within the Stephen Formation in British Columbia, Canada. The formation consists of detrial materials which tumbled down the face of a limestone reef face -- the Cathedral escarpment -- in a series of turbide falls. The Burgess shale is found over a series of Rocky Mountain peaks near the town of Field in Yoho National Park. The formation is largely non-fossiliferous, but at various places, it includes abundant fossils of soft bodied animals that lived either in the muds in their original location atop the Cathedral Escarpment, and a few free swimming animals scooped up on the way down. The Burgess fossils were discovered by C.D.Walcott in 1909 and were collected originally over a period of several years. In the past few decades, serious reinvestigation of the animals found there has taken place. The Burgess is the best publicized of Cambrian soft-bodied fossil locations.

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Burgesschaeta

The most abundant polychaete in the Burgess Shale. There are 24 trunk segments each with a pair of appendages. The most forward segment is uniramous. The remaining segments are biramous with 11 setae in one branch and 17 setae in the other. All the setae are flattened, curved and project backwards. There are a pair of tentacles on the head. The gut could be eviscorated to form a probiscis. No significant sediment has been found in the guts. As with the most other Burgess polychaetes, Burgesschaeta is dissimilar to the other polychaetes and to other fossil and modern polychaetes.

Burgesschaeta setigaria Walcott 1911 \ Middle Cambrian, Burgess Shale

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Burgess Shale Trilobites

Except for the softbodied forms \ Naraoi and Tegopelte, the Burgess trilobites appear to be conventional Middle Cambrian Trilobites. I do not plan to undertake describing the hundreds of Middle Cambrian Trilobites. I'll just list the identified Burgess taxa:

• Chancia (A ptychoparid)

• Ehmaniella (A ptychoparid)

• Elrathia (A ptychoparid)

• Elrathina (A ptychoparid)

• Hanburia (A Corynexid)

• Kootenia (A Corynexid)

• Naraoi (A unique soft shelled trilobite - Naraoiid)

• Olenoides (A Corynexid)

• Oryctocephalus (A Corynexid)

• Pagetia (An Agnostid)

• Parkaspis (A Corynexid)

• Peronopsis (An Agnostid)

• Ptcyagnostus (An Agnostid)

• Spencella (A ptychoparid)

• Tegopelte (A soft shelled trilobite)

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Burgessia

An arthropod of unknown affinity from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Burgessia had a round body shield with a pie shaped section cut from the rear. There was a small Telson and very long tail spine which may have had a single joint. A pair of long, curving antenna extended to the front. There are three pairs of walking legs on the cephalon. And seven sets of biramous legs and gills on the trunk. The body shield appears to have been fairly soft and thin as it is wrinkled and distorted in many specimens. It may have consisted of a three segment cephalon and a carapace. The body may have been annulated, but the body shied does not appear to be segmented or even to be composed of fused segments.

• Burgessia bella Walcott 1912

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Burin Group

A mixture of mafic pillow lavas, volcanic rocks, shales and limestones found on the Burin Peninsula of Newfoundland. The group is 1500 meters thick and one member -- the Wordsworth Gabbro is dated at 763 +-2 Ma

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Buthrotrephis

A proterozoic trace fossil found in the Harlaniella podolica zone in the Chapel Island Formation in Newfoundland. It is an irregularly branching burrow.

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C12/C13 Ratio

Carbon has three common isotopes. C12, C13 and C14. C14 is radioactive and decays relatively quickly. C14 is used for dating recent organic remains, but amounts become too small to measure accurately within 100,000 years or so. C13 and C14 are stable. Organic carbon is almost all fixed from the atmosphere by a chemical reaction involving ribulose biphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco). Rubisco fixes C12 preferentially because lighter C12 has higher mobility than C13 in vitro, This results in organic carbon having a different C13/C12 ratio than carbon fixed by simple inorganic processes. Limestone, in fact fixes C12 preferentially. The C13/C12 ratio is used to determine if carbon or carbonate deposits are of organic or inorganic origin. Enzymes other than Rubisco fix carbon in some lifeforms. All fix C12 preferentially, but the percentage of C12 to C13 may differ.

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Calc-Alkaline suites

Igneous rocks that exhibit a range of composition. Useful in correlation of rock sequences as similar calc-alkaline beds can possibly be correlated between outcrops.

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'Calcareous Cones'

A Vendian fossil from the Death Valley region of California. This appears to be different from Cloudina so I have treated them as a subGenus of Cloudina. (10be-bh)

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Calcichordates

Echninoderms with a segmented body and some chordate-like features. Jeffries has hypothesized them to be possible ancestors of the chordates. The are asserted to have a tail used for swimming, a notochord, gill slits and a fish like brain. They also have steromes -- echinoderm plates. Most authors feel that Jeffries asserted relationship is invalid and that the apparent resemblences are coincidental.

The term Calcichordate is apparently synonomous with the stylophora a Family(?) including the Carpoids and Mitrates. Both classes are clearly echinoderms with typical sterome plates. They appear to have been free living organisms without the usual five-fold radial symmetry of echinoderms. Instead, they have a plated body with two plated appendages. It is not entirely clear that they are even echinoderms. There are at least six terms in use \ carpoids, homalozoans, solutes, mitrates cinctans and ctenocystoids. The earliest known calcichordates seem to be from the Middle Cambrian They appear to have been deep water forms.

Solutes: Blastozoans descended from Eocrinoids. Characterized by a single erect axial arm.

Cinctans: Blastozoans. Characterized by two axial arms

Ctenocystoids: Blastozoans. Characterized by two axial arms

Stylophorans: Possibly crinoidal rather than Blastozoan? Have s structure called a Aulacophore composed of an extended theca and a true crinoid like arm. Ceratocystis is purportedly a primitive stylophore related to the orders Cornuta and Mitrata.

Cornutes: descendants of a Protocystiteslike ancestor

Mitrates: Descendents of a Lobocarpuslike stylophore

Lagynocystida: Mitrates with arms.

Peltocystida: Mitrates with glossa (whatever those are).

Mitrocystitida: Mictates with both arms and glossa

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Calodiscus L. Rabenhorst 1853/Howell 1935

An Eodiscoid trilobite -- similar to agnostids, but with a trilobite-like segmented pygidium. It is a member of the family Calodiscidae. Several species -- C. lobatus and C. meeki are reported from New York. Other members of the family are from the Lower and Middle Cambrian of North America and Europe{3} A typical Eodiscid with an agnostid like cephalon and trilobite like pygidium, The cephalon is semicircular. The glabella is parallel sided to tapering forward. shallow tringlabellar furrows (no idea what those are). Occipital furrow impressed. Occipital ring rounded or with small spine. border smooth or tuberculate. Pygidium mid section prominent with 5 or so segments. Margin may be serrate. Calodiscus and Dawsonia are the only two genera of eodiscids with really distinct segmentation of the pygidium surface. Dawsonia -- a Middle Cambrian form -- has a more furrowed front margin and a glabella that goes far forward to the rim. Calodiscus is found in Europe and North America.

• Calodiscus lobatus Hall Kap Troedsson and Aftensjernesø Formations

• Calodiscus lobatus Hall Scania, Sweden

• Calodiscus lobatus Hall New York

• Calodiscus meeki New York

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Camarocladia

A ramose (branching) Cambrian and Ordovician sponge with moderately circular stems. The three rayed spines are internal and calcerous.

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Cambrian Period

The first Period of the Paleozoic Era. It was originally defined by Adam Sedgwick based on a (rather poor in retrospect) sequence of very old rocks in Wales and received its name from the Roman Name for Wales -- Cambria. The later part of Sedgwick's Cambrian was later placed in the Ordovician Period. Traditionally, the Lower Boundary of the Cambrian has been set at the first appearance of hard bodied trilobites and archeocyanthids. When older complex life forms started to be recognized in significant numbers in the 1960s, some authors moved the Cambrian-PreCambrian boundary back to include them. Most did not. I am not a fan of moving baselines and have tried to use the old boundary in it's modern incarnation in this glossary. The Cambrian-Ordovician boundary is now set at an extinction event.

The absolute dates of the start and end of the Cambrian are somewhat uncertain and have been edging forward in recent decades. Absolute dates in the literature should be viewed with some scepticism as they are often relative to rock formations whose presumed ages have changed a bit in recent decades. See the timeline section for more information.

This glossary addresses everything I can find on the Lower Cambrian but addresses only soft bodied forms in the Middle Cambrian. It pretty much ignores the Upper Cambrian

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Cambrian Life:

Cambrian lifeforms were more or less modern. They vary from a brachiopod Lingula that appears to be nearly indistinguishable from its modern relatives to some animals that resemble nothing much alive today. There are two puzzles associated with early Cambrian life. The first is the great diversity of forms that evolved in a very short period, This is referred to as the "Cambrian Explosion". The second puzzle is the great diversity of body plans that were subsequently discarded. For example, arthropods are distinguished by the arrangements of legs, gills and antennae, especially on the head. Only four basic arthropod body plans survive the Cambrian but a number of other plans are found in the Lower and Middle Cambrian. This is discussed as the "Cambrian Body Plan Problem". In this document we will discuss two sets of animals. First, we will address a large number of animals with hard parts found worldwide. This is the conventional Lower Cambrian faunas that has been known worldwide since the 19th Century. Second we will discuss soft bodied faunas. These are best known from Middle Cambrian rocks -- especially the Burgess Shale of Canada, but they are also known from the Lower Cambrian of China and from isolated specimens found elsewhere.

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Cambrorhytium

A Cambrian Algae

• Cambrorhytium major (Walcott, 1908) - maotianshan Shale, China

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Campostromatoidea

A Lower Cambrian echinoderm? [No matches in Google Search 6/28/01]

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Canadia

A fairly common polychaete worm best known from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale. A worm with "large chaetose parapodia" (I think this means small leg like extensions on each segment). Originally described from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia, it has also been identified from the mid-Cambrian Spence shale at Wellsville Mt., UT . The head has a pair of long backward curving tentacles. The trunk has 20 to 22 segments. The forwardmost segment in uniramous. The remainder are biramous with one bunch of 30 to 35 curvec flatened setae that cover the body. The other caried about 30 simple setae. A small one or two lobed resperitory(?) organ was located between the two branches. The preserved guts are sediment free, possibly indicating that the animal was a free swimmer rather than a sediment feeder. Canadia is the only Burgess polychaete showing much resemblance to moder polychaetes. It is assigned to its own family however.

• Canadia spinosa Walcott 1911 \ Middle Cambrian. British Columbia, Burgess Shale

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/ppikaia.htm

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Canadapsis

A primitive crustacean known primarily from the Burgess shale near Field, BC. It is also known from strata at the Lower-Medium Cambrian boundary in the Northern part of the Groom Range in Nevada. And from Alberta. Canadapsis perfecta is a malacostracan crustacean related to the decapods (crabs, lobsters, etc.). It is covered by a hinged, bilobed carapace attached at the front The head bears 5 pairs of appendages as well as two eyes mounted on unsegmented stalks. There is a mouth aft of the two pairs of probably flexible antennae. The fisrst antennae are poorly known, the second are segmented. There may be a cephalic spine under the carapace. The body consists of eight segments each with a biramous gill and leg pair. It appears to have been only moderately flexible. There are seven segments with no appendages and a telson in the rear. There are perhaps three pairs of spines on the Telson. Smaller spines occur on the appendages. Size of the carapace is 10 to 50 cm. Over 4000 specimens are known.{1}

• C perfecta Walcott 1912 \ Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale - BC

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/pcanadap.htm

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Cano/Borucki Experiment

In 1995, Cano and Borucki at Cal Poly extracted bateria spores (Bacillus) from the gut of a bee encased in Dominican amber and cultured it. The amber can not be preciesely dated but is thought to be between 25 and 40 million years old. The extraction was done under sterile conditions and there is no evidence of contamination. The bacteria was subsequently identified as Bacillus sp by DNA analysis.

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Canyon Diablo Meteorite

A relatively recent meteorite that left a distictive crater in Central Arizona. Iron minerals in the meteorite have been dated at 4.5Ga. A similar age is inferred for the Earth.

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Carbon Contamination

Contamination of preCambrian cherts, shales, etc by ground water containing carbonaceous material. Studies have shown that fine grained material can be contaminated in this fashion. There are no generally accepted criteria for distinguishing modern material introduced by ground water from naturally occurring carbon.

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Carnarvonia

An arthropod of unknown affinity from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Only the Carapace is known. It appears to be bivalved with a simple hinge. The shells may be hinged or the apparent hinge may be purely decorative. The shells have a distinct veined pattern.

• C.sp Walcott 1912

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Cassubia

An Anamalocarid feeding appendage that is not associated with known body specimens.

C. Infercambriensis.

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Catalyzed Creation

A theory that assumes that the difficulties in polymerizing amino acids into polypeptides and nucleic acids in aqueous solutions can be overcome by hypothesizing the existence of catalysts. Unfortunately the known suitable catalysts -- cyanmide and imidazole -- include Purine and pyrimidine. Both include the sugar ribose as well as. To date, ribose and Pyrimidine have not been created except as a biproduct of life.

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Cathaymyrus

A 5cm long hemichordate or chordate? From the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna of China. It closely resembles the Middle Cambrian Pikaia from British Columbia. It is a jawless worm like creature with a probable notochord and faint gill slits. Only a single specimen is known. The name means "Chinese eel of good fortune".

• Cathymyrus diadexus Shu, Zhang and Morris -- Mt Maan, Chengjian, Yunan, China

http://www.paleondemand.com/repo/repoe.htm (Picture)

http://www-geology.ucdavis.edu/~GEL3/Cathaymyrus.html

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Cephalochordates

See Hemichordates

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Cephalon

The headshield of trilobites. Other modern arthropods have a fused Cephaolothorax, but many other primitive arthropods had a separate cephalon attached to a segmented thorax. Depending upon the order, the cephalon may bear antennae, one or more sets of fixed spines, as many as four pairs of legs, a mouth, a bottom shield called a hypostome, free cheeks that split off during moulting, and/or a central raised area known as a glabella.

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Cephalophytarion

A Filamentous microfossil -- presumably a cyanobacterium -- from the 1,000 year old Bitter Springs Chert in Australia. The filaments are distinctly segmented into several dozen segments. More distinctly segmented than Obconicophycus, less than Oscillatoriopis

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Cerionopoa

A late Neoproterozoic acritarch found in the Doushanto Formation of China. Appears to be multicellular and may represent an algae with a multicellular life stage.

• Cerionopoa ordinata -- Acritarchs -- Dousantuo Formation

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'Champagne'

Ben Waggoner's name for a form that has not been formally described. Radiating lines from a central disk. Named for the burst of foam from an open bottle of champagne. Possibly a trace fossil, but more likely a true fossil. Possibly figured by Gehling 1991, P6 f3- White Sea Number [96] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Chancelloria

A tubular, finger shaped, sacklike or frondlike multicellular animal with numerous large rayed "spiculies" -- each with 4 to 9 projections around central vertical projections. The shape of the "spicules" varies in different species from conical to rod-like. Long classified as a sponge, it became evident in the 1990s that the spicules are hollow and external -- Sclerites rather than being internal and solid as in sponges. Found throughout the Cambrian - Southwest North America, British Columia, Utah, China. Bengston and Xianguang report that based on studies of Chinese Chancelloroids the sclerites rest on the cuticle and were placed in a rhombical pattern on the bristly cuticle which did not cover the sclerites. The sclerites were not, in their opinion, formed by mineralization of the cuticle. They believe that this argues strongly against any Chancelloroid relationship to either sponges or ascidians. Other animals with sclerites include Wiwaxia and the Halkerids.

• Chancelloria sp -- Yi and Bengtson (1989)

• Chancelloria eros

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Channel Islands

An area of France where Vendian fossils have been found

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Chanoflagellates:

A small group of modern single celled animals that are probably closely related to the Sponges. Chanoflagellates have a collar of slender finger like microvilli surrounding a single whip-like flagellum. The Chanoflaggelates all live in water both fresh and salt. They may be either sessile or mobile. They reproduce by cell division. They have no fossil record, but are hypothesized to probably trace back to the precambrian. They closely resemble certain cells in sponges.

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Chapel Island Formation

A rock unit exposed in SouthEast Newfoundland that includes Pre-Cambrian and Lower Cambrian rocks. The GSSP for The Lower Cambrian-PreCambrian boundary is at the first appearance of the traced fossil Trichphycus pedum in the Chapel Island formation at Fortune Head, Newfoundland. The formation is divided into 5 members. The combined exposure at Fortune Head, Little Danzig Cove and Grand Banks. The Cambrian/PreCambrian boundary is conventionally placed 2.4 meters above the base of the 430 meter thick number 2 member.

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Chapel Island Formation

Latest Precambrian and Early Cambrian sandstones, shales and quartzites found in Eastern Newfoundland. The Chapel Island represent near shore and shelf marine sediments. The Chapel Island formation overlies the Roncontre Formation and Is overlain by the Random Formation.

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Chapel Island Formation - Depositional Environment

Shallow Water deposits with subareal exposure at times -- Some beds have stromatolites. Otherrs appear to be tidal, deeper water and deltaic. Vert6ical and complex feeding burrows are found in high energy areas. Quieter areas have more complex trace fossils

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Charnia

A frond like fossil with segmented ridges branching alternately to the right and left from a zig zag medial suture. It strongly resembles a chestnut leaf. There is one species Charnia masoni. It was originally interpreted as an Algae (Ford) or a sea pen (Glaessner). One modern interpretation is that it is a Vendobiont built with unipolar iterations of one cell family. - (Central Iran)?, Charnwood Forest, Olenek, Newfoundland, White Sea. Number [1] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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'Charnia like'

Late PreCambrian or Early Cambrian fossils from Central Iran . They have been variously interpreted as Charnia and as molds of shelly fossils.(10w)

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Charniodiscus

Stalklike bilobed animals with a round holdfast. Possibly primitive sea pens. Originally described from well known and widely distributed fragments as two different animals{6} - Alice Springs Charnwood Forest, Ediacara, NW Canada, Podolia, White Sea, Number [3] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Charnwood Forest, England

A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. The area is part of a large outrop of Paleozoic and Neoproterozoic beds located West of London and extending roughly 75km East and West of a line from Bristol to Birmingham. The Charnwood Terrane is the Southwesterly of three terranes in the area. The Wrekin Terrane extends to the West and the Fenland Terrane to the NorthEast. The exposure includes a number of sites in Charnwood Forest and near Nuneaton. In total, at least 3.5km of volcanic and detrial marine rocks are exposed. They seem to have been deposited in moderately deep water adjacent to a calc-alkaline volcanic arc on new continental crust. These beds appear to be distinct chemically from those found in the contemporaneous Fenland Terrane to the East. The beds include distinctive Ediacarian age fossils that appear to have some ties to the unique assemblage at Fortune Head in Newfoundland.

One locality is the North Quarry, Woodhouse Eaves, Leicestershire - Bradgatia, Charnia, Charniodiscus, cyclomedusa, Ernietta, Ivesia, Pseudovendia, Sabellitides, 'waterlily', (10t-u) Some poorly preserved Lower Cambrian fossils are also reported from the area

Localities

• Ives Head, Shepstead

• Old John, Bradgate Park

• Memorial Crags, Bradgate Park

• The Outwoods

• North Quarry, Charnwood Golf Course

• Cliffe Hill Quarry

• Ashes Hollow Quarry

• Coed Cochion

• The stable pit, Bradgate Park (Paleozoic?)

• 'The Brand' (Paleozoic?)

• Thorton/Twisleton Glen (Paleozoic?)

http://www.jncc.gov.uk/gcr/gcrweb/GCRseries%202/Volume%2020/PrecambV202ed.htm

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Chaunograptus

A possible graptolite from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It may be a hydrozoan, It is found in associate with the sponge Tupoia linata Walcott and may have been climbing on the sponge. The stems and thecae seem to have grown by accreation. Chauograptus is included in the Order Dendroida in the graptolite volume of the Treatise.

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Cheiichnus

A trace fossil found in the Lower Cambrian Mickwitzia sandstone of Vastergotland, Sweden. The fossils are similar to the trace fossil Bergaueria, but show what appear to be tool marks of an arthropod. It appears to be the result of a arthropod -- possibly an olenellid trilobite -- rotating in a resting burrow. Trilobite resting burrows are generally classified as Rusophycus,.

• Cheiichnus gothicus Jensen & Bergstroem 2000

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Chelicerata

A subphylum of the arthropods that includes horsesoe crabs, spiders, ticks, mites scorpions and sea spiders. Chelicerata cephalons are characterized by appendages called Chelicerae used for siezing and tearing prey, a pair of pedipalps as well as four pairs of walking legs. They do not have antennae. Food may be partially digested outside the body and is often sucked in after being partially digested

The subphylum includes the class Merostomata (subclasse Xiphosurida), Pycnogonida, and Arachnida

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Chemeric Model

A theory set forth in 1996 by Golding and Gupta suggesting that the eukaryotic cell arose as a result of fusion of genetic material from a Gram-negative eubacteria that acted as host to a symbiotic archaebacteria. Although it is supported by chemical evidence, this theory is controversial because modern bacteria do not envelope prey.

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Chemlithoautotroph

An organism that relies on chemical compounds to strore energy and obtains energy by oxidizing inorganic materials such as Hydrogen, Iron, Sulfur, Ammonia or Nitrite. Does not include bacteria that oxidize Carbon Monoxide or Methane

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Chemorganoheterotroph

An organism that obtains carbon from Organic compounds and obtains energy by oxidizing organic compounds.

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Chenjiang

A town in Yunnan, China. Chenjiang (there are various Romanizations) is roughly 5km E of Lake Dianchi about 40 km S of the city of Kunming, More than 80 species of well preserved Lower Cambrian soft bodied fossils have been recovered from 6 quarries in a small area 6km NNE of Chengjiang. The vast majority of the specimens found belong to the genus Kunmmingella. Animals found include redlichiid trilobites as well as anamolocariids, and several genera of animals also found in the Middle Cambrian Burgess shale. Like the Burgess Shale, the Chengjiang fauna is found in turbide deposits dropping off a shelf.

http://www.paleondemand.com/repo/repoe.htm (Picture)

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Chert

A silica mineral. Under some curcumstances it may precipitate out using organic material as a template thereby preserving fine internal detail. Fossiliferous sub tidal cherts are rare prior to the later Proterozoic. Possibly the development of solacepis spoges or other silaceous forms in the late proterozoic are responsible.

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Cheshire Quartzite

A whiteish Lower Cambrian quartzite found in a long strip from Western Massachusetts through Vermont to the Canadian border where there is a facies change to the Gilman Quartzite in Quebec. A few Olenellus zone fossils have been found in the Cheshire. The Cheshire lies above phyllitic siltstones of the Underhill formation and below the Dunham Dolomite.

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China

• (10a)Conway Morris, S., Mattes, B. W., and Chen Menge. 1990. The early skeletal organism Cloudina : new occurrences from Oman and possibly China. American Journal of Science 290A: 245-260.

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China Geology

Lushan, West Hinian Region Outcrops on Peninsula NNE of Dalian and along N trending line from NanJing to Jaxian

• Xinji Fmtn -- L Cambrian

• Unconformity

• Dongpo Fm 590Ma

• Luquan? Fm 619Ma

• Dongjia Fm

• Huanglianduo Fm

• Unconformity

• Luoyukou Fm -- 850 Ma Pb-Pb

• Sanjiaotang Fm

• Cuizhuang Fm

• Beidajian Fm

• BeiCaoping Fm

• Yunmengshan Fm

• Xiangoubei Fm

• Xiong'er Group (675Mas Rb-Sr)

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Southern Ashui

• Houjiashan Fm (Lower Cambrian)

• Unconformity

• Fengtai Fm 608+-34Ma Pb-Pb

• Sidingshan Fm

• Juiliqiao Fm

• Souxian Fm

• Lilaobei Fm (700-750Ma date at 748Ma

• Bagongshang Fm

• Caodian Fm

• Unconformity

• Fengyang Fm 1000Ma

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Sinian System -- Chinese 600-800Ma Quinbaikuo System -- Chinese 800-1000Ma

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China -Interior Sequence

in China Outcrops along a line from South of Hinyman thru Jixian in the Beijing Area of the North China Block and also Southwest of Zengahou about 500km to the South

• Changping Formation (L Cambrian)

• Unconformity (Xixian uplift)

• Qingbaikoou Group

  • Jingeryu Fmtn - 850Ma

  • Longshan (Luotuoling) Fmtn - 873Ma

  • Xiamaling Fmtn - 879+-13Ma Pb-Pb Limestones and shales

• Unconformity (Quinyu uplift)

• ng: 0

  Tieling Fmtn -- 1010Ma

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Choia

A Lower and Middle Cambrian Sponge

• Choia carteri Walcott, 1920 - Maotianshan Shale, China, Burgess Shale, BC

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/pchoia.htm

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Chirality

The property of being unable to properly join L or D material from a racemic mixture. The nucleotides comprising RNA are chiral.

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Chmielewski

Jean Chmielewski is a scientist at Purdue University who has developed a system of four peptides that can replicate itself and that creates different amounts of new peptides depending on the mix of reactants. The system was described in the Dec 3, 1999 issue of Nature. The system includes both self replicating and cross replicating elements participating in 11 chemical reactions. Four peptides are used as the feedstock which assembles into four proteins that then participate in four self replication reactions and seven cross-replications. The favored reactions are controlled by factors like PH, salt concentration, etc.

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Chondrites

A Lower Cambrian trace fossil. Chondrites is found in Lower Cambrian to Mesozoic beds. It takes the form of a multibranching tree structure with the root on the surface. It is interpreted as the feeding burrow of an unknown animal. It is found in the Lake Louise/Kicking Horse Pass area of British Columbia/Alberta

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Chondroplon

Possibly a member of the Suborder Chondrophorina -- a group of colonial animals called hydrozoan cnidarians. They physically resemble jellyfish. Ediacara, White Sea Number [40] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Chorhat Tracks

Burrows(?) of constant size up to half a cm wide found under remains of algal mats in 1.1 billion year old Chorhat Sandstone of the Khhenjua Formation in the Vindhyan Supergroup of Central India by Seilacher and Pflueger. The tracks are found along a road both East and West of the town of Chorhat. Most observers agree that they do not appear to be cracks or modern artifacts and that they look like burrows but express some reservations because of their extreme age. The tracks could conceivably be holes previously occupied by algal filaments but they appear too large for that. The sandstones are radiometrically dated at about 1.1 billion years. These burrows are consistent with molecular biological projections that put the separation of annelids and echinoderms at about the time of the tracks. But there is skepticism based on the lack of fossil evidence for metazoans in rocks from 600 Million to 1 billion years in age.(9) R.J.Amzi reports finding representatives of the small shelly fauna elsewhere in the Vinhyan Basin from limestones and shales found just above the same sandstones leading him to believe that the sandstones may be 600 Million Years old or less and may be composed of sediments from an older formation resulting in a misdating. A.K.Sinah agrees that the objects reported by Amzi are organic. Other people like Nicholas Butterworth say that Amzi's small shelly fossils look organic in black and white SEM photos, but not in visible light.{16) http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/images/

A commision of Indian scientists rejected Amzi's claim in 2000. Amzi continues to find evidence that he claims supports misdating.

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Chuaria

A widespread carbonaceous PreCambrian Fossil. A spherical, single celled plantonic algae about 1 to 5 mm in size.(10ae,10f)

• Chuaria sp Walcott. Found as common black coaly disks in a carbonaceous shale in the Grand Canyon of the Colorado.

• Chuaria circularis: Fort Norman, NWT, Canada

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Chuar Group

A rock formation in the Grand Canyon containing fossil protists. The beds consist of 1600 meters of unaltered mudstones, siltstones and shales containing the fossil forms Chuaria and Melanocyrillium. The Chuar beds are part of the unconformal sequence below the Tapeats sandstone. They overlie the Cardenas Basalt. The base of the formation is thought to date to about 800Ma. A volcanic ash bed at the top of the formation is U-Pb dated at 742Ma. The Chuar is thought to be contemporaneous with the Pahrump and Uinta Mountain Groups.

The Chuar consists of three formations; the Galeros formation (shale, limestone, sandstone); the Kwangunt formation (shale with minor limestone and sandstone; and the Sixtymile Sandstone (oldest).

Melanocyrillium

A vase shaped fossil from the upper 300m of the Neoproterozoic Chuar Group in the Grand Canyon..

Big Cottonwood Group

A Late neoproterozoic sequence from the Wastach Mountains East of Salt Lake City

Parhump Group

A neoproterozoic formation contemporaneous with the Chuar Group of the Grand Canyon and the Unita Mountain Group of Northern Utah

Uinta Mountain Group

A neoproterozoic formation contemporaneous with the Chuar Group of the Grand Canyon and Pahrump Group.

Sixtymile Formation

The Oldest Member of the Neoproterozoic Chuar Group in the Grand Canyon. Primarily tan sandstone with minor shaly beds.

Kwagunt Formation

The middle member of the Neoproterozoic Chuar Group in the Grand Canyon. Primarily black shale and red to purple siltstone with minor limestone and with reddish sandstone in the Carbon Butte area. Stromatolites are found in the formation.

Galeros Formation

The Youngest member of the Neoproterozoic Chuar Group in the Grand Canyon. Interbedded greenish and red shales, sandstones and limestones with some fossil stromatolites.

Choubertella

A Fallotopsid Lower Cambrian trilobite. Juvenile forms have a well developed intergenal spine as well as a genal spine. They are much reduced in the adult animals.

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Chuandianella

A bivalved arthropod somewhat similar to Waptia found in the Chengjiang fauna of China.

• C ovata Yunnan, China

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Cindarella eucalla

A petaopleuran xandarellid from the Lower Cambrian. Has possible caeca preserved as repeated dark stains. My impression is that this is an anamalocarid.

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Circotheca

A thin tapering mud filled tubelike fossil found about 600 meters above the base of the Chapel Island formation in Newfoundland.

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Circothecids

Members of the small shelly fauna in Spain

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Clade

Cladistic jargon for a group of lifeforms that includes a ancestoral form and all it's descendants. Such a group is not 'cladistic'. It is 'Monophyletic'.

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Cladistics

A classification scheme that has somewhat replaced the traditional Linnean System with its heiarchy of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. Weaknesses of the Linnean system include a lack of information on evolutionary history; substantial vagueness about the closeness of apparent relationships; lack of rigor in assigning relationships; and lack of tools for assessing the quality of alternative structures.

Cladistics arranges lifeforms into "cladograms" that attempt to relate animals back to ancestoral forms. A heiarchy over time rather than a heiarchy over physiology if you will. Cladograms are binary trees that attempt to show each evolutionary step in the differentiation of lifeforms.

Thus, for example, Linnean systemology shows dogs, wolves and coyotes as all being species within the Genus Canis A cladogram would show which canid evolved from which. Weaknesses of cladistics include mindnumbing jargon; difficulty in handling missing forms; problems in distinguishing inherited from seperately evolved/lost characteristics; and a dependence of results on the choice of characters used to develop the cladogram. Cladistics uses the principle of parsimony -- the most compact possible arrangement is deemed to be correct. It also incorporates the concept of genetic distance -- the shortest number of nodes between two nodes.

Cladistics can be applied to any of (ie. Preserved body part characteristics), behavior, or to molecular data if it is available.

It has not, so far as I know, been shown that cladistics can effectively handle sparsely populated data sets such as those encountered in paleontology either in theory or practice.

Cladistic discussions tend to be conducted at high amplitude in quite incomprehnsible lingo and with a notable lack of fellowship, congeniality and good humor.

There is a movement toward replacing Linnean species nomenclature with cladogram based nomenclature. There has been substantial resistance even among moderates who have doubts about the stability of the cladograms and are concerned with the possibility of having to deal with a constantly changing nomenclature.

Cladistics really has two applications incidentally. to molecular phylogeny which deals with changes in DNA. The second is for systemizastion of eternal morphology. It is often assumed that since DNA controls the morphology, these two concepts are fully interchangable. This may not be true and it is possible that concepts that work in one of the two contexts may not work in the other. Cladistics uses a plethora of jargon. Key terms include: Polyphyly, Paraphyly, Monophyly, Clade, Apomorphy, Plesiomorphy, Synamorphy

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Cladophora

An Ulvophyte (a type of green algae) algae that is found from the present back at least as far as the 700-750Ma Svanbergfjellet Formation from Spitzbergen.

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Clay-Mineral Theory

A theory proposed by A.G. Cairns-Smith in 1982-1985 that Lifeforms first assembled themselves on clay interspaces.

• http://www.mandala.co.uk/ tt@cryogen.com

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Cloudina

A Tubular 'cone in cone', curved ,calcareous tube as much as 2cm in length from the late Pre-Cambrian. Cloudina is a member of a larger family Cloudinidae that includes several similar forms. Brazil?, Namibia, Oman, South China, SW North America. {14} Number [104] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Cloudinidae

Tubular fossils with non-smooth outer surfaces. Named for the Paleontologist Preston Cloud who worked with Nama Group limestones of Southwest Africa in the 1970s. Typically conical or slightly curved "cone in cone" structures. The outer calcareous shell is fragile and may not be preserved - leaving the tubular core instead. Although originally described as calcareous algae, the modern consensus is that they are probably animals -- perhaps annelid worms. The Cloudinids are the oldest animals in the fossil record to have calcareous shells. The family includes three Genera:{14}

• Cloudina

  • 'Calcareous Cones'

• Sinotubulites

• Wyattia

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Cloudina Association:

A Vendian fossil assemblege found in Spain. The oldest of the five associations identifed by Fernandez-Remolar in 1999.

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Cnidaria

scyphozoans

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Cochlichnus:

A Lower Cambrian trace fossil found in the Mickwitzia sandstone of Sweden.

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Cochrane, Karen

A paleontologist from the University of Leicester who believes that the Euconodonts (predecessors of the conodonts) evolved from the Chaetognath worms rather than the Chordata

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Condylopygidae

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Conodonts

Extinct worm like forms with phosphatic teeth. The teeth are quite common in Paleozoic rocks, but body fossils were not found until the late 1980s. Conodonts are known from the preCambrian to the Carboniferous. The earliest forms are identified as Protoconodonts, followed by Paraconodonts, followed by Euconodonts, followed finally by the true conodonts. Following the discovery of body fossils, most paleontologists place conodonts in the Phylum chordata. There are a lot of opinions where the Conodonts belong amongst the vertebrates. Cochrane, on the other hand places the Euconodonts (the therefore the conodonts) in a phyllum along with the chaetognath worms.

Conodonts have fins and eyes as well as teeth and are generally regarded as vertbrates.

http://home.houston.rr.com/vnotes/notes/Vertebrata.html

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Copiotroph

A bacteria requiring 1000-1500 micrograms (i.e. A lot) of organic carbon or more for growth and life.

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Collenia

A stromatolite -- fossilized algal mats. Two early species of Collenia are known Collenia frequens Walcott, Collenia versiformes F&F - from the Upper Pre-Cambrian of Montana(16)

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Comasphaeridium

A Lower Cambrian acritarch(?) or diatom(?) from the Carapathian region

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'comb'

Ben Waggoner's name for a form that has not been formally described. A straight narrow cylinder with equally spaced branches along one side at 90 degrees to the main stem. Possibly a colonial cnidarian. Mention in Misra 1969. Figures in Anderson and Morris 1982. - Newfoundland Number [8] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Comely Quarry, U.K.

A small quarry at Comely in the Welsh Borderlands of the United Kingdom that exposes most of the Lower Cambrian sequence in the area.

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Computer Analysis Techniques

Computer techniques for determining degrees of association between (faunal) groups with overlapping memberships. Used by Waggoner to determine the degree of relationship between various Vendian faunal assemblages.

• Brooks Parsimony Analysis(PAE)

• Phenetic Clustering Analysis(PCA)

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Condylopygidae

A family of agnostid trilobites. Purportedly the front lobe on the glabella is wider than the main lobe. "rear part of the pygidial axis usually somewhat expanded and evenly rounded at posterior extremity" (whatever that means). I invite the reader to examine the pictures in the Treatise and try to relate them -- especially Mallagnostus -- to that description.

• Mallagnostus

• 2 Middle Cambrian Genera

Agnostina (suborder), Condylopygidae (family), Condylopyge (genus), Mallagnostus (genus), Pleuroctenium (genus)

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'cones'

Cup to Cone shaped mineralized fossils from the Death valley area that have not been formally described. See Langille, 1974 - SW North America, Number [107] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Conichnus:

A Lowest Cambrian trace fossil found in the Phycodes pedum zone in the Chapel Island Formation in Newfoundland.

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Conodonts

Small animals found throughout the Paleozoic known mostly from their phospatic teeth. The conodont animal is known from only a few specimens and is generally considered to be related to the vertebrates. Conodonts per se originated during the Ordovician, but some possible ancestors are known. See Protoconodonts.

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Conomedusites

A preCambrian medusoid consisting of four somewhat heart shaped elements joined at the points of the heart yielding an eight lobed discoid with two crossing lines. There is a fringe around the outside. McMenamin conjectures this to be a four cell family Ediacaran with no iteration. (14) Ediacara, Podolia, White Sea Number [74] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Conophyton

An late PreCambrian algae that forms stromatolites. McMenamin shows a specimen from Sonora - SW North America,

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Conventional Lower Cambrian Faunas

In the "old fashioned" scheme of study, these are the kingdoms Metazoa, Plants, Fungi and, within the Metazoa, the "normal" 35 or so classical phyla studied by paleontologists and zoologists since the 18th century. Possible representatives of all the classical phyla that are sufficiently large and common except conodonts and bryozoa seem to be known from the Early Cambrian. Additional phyla have probably been recognized in the soft bodied faunas. Excluding some dubious Early Cambrian phyla, the recognized or suggested phyla (and there are many more than 35) are:

Animals

• Acanthocephala - Spiny headed (Thorny headed) worms. Sometimes included in the Psuedocoelomates. About 500 modern species are known -- all parasitic living in vertebrate guts.

• Aeschelminthes - round worms including the "phlya" Nematodes, Rotiferans, Gastrotricha, Kinorhyncha, Nematomorphs, and Priapulida

• Annelida* - Segmented worms with chitinous coverings. Divided into Clitellata (or Oligochaeta and Hirudinea) and Polychaeta. Marine/Freshwaret/Terrestrial/Parasitic/Symbiotic. Includes earth worms, leaches and many other segmented worms. About 15000 modern species. Spotty fossil record back to the Lower Cambrian and possibly to the late Proterozoic.

• Arthropoda* Segmented animals with thin chitinous or phosphatic shells and (usually) segmented legs. 1000000 modern species good fossil record back at least to the base of the Lower Cambrian Marine/Freshwaret/Terrestrial/Parasitic/Symbiotic.

• Archeocyatha Sessile conical animals somewhat resembling hollow horn corals found in Lower Cambrian sediments.

• Aschelminths: A proposed phylum consisting of a number of wormlike classes regarded as phyla by other authors. Nematoda, Rotifera, Gastrotricha, Kinorhyncha,Priapulida

• Brachiopoda* -- Sessile, two shelled, marine animals that look vaguely like pelecypod mollusks but are quite different internally -- Some modern usage puts the Brachiopods in the Lophphorates

• Bryozoa* -- A Classical Phylum of water dwelling animals. which is sometimes subsumed into the Phylum Lobophorata. Bryozoa is one of the few classical phyla from which no members have been found in the Cambrian. They seem to have evolved in the Ordovician.

• Cephalocordata

• Cephalorhyncha

• Chaetognatha -- Arrow Worms: Marine worms. Possible ancestors of conodonts as Cambrian ProtoConodonts have some resemblences to Arrow Worms.

• Chordata* -- Animals with backbones. Marine/Freshwaret/Terrestrial/Parasitic/Symbiotic. Possibly descended from the hemichordates. Possible fish scales are known from the Upper Cambrian. Chordates and hemichordates are known from Lower Cambrian

• Cnidaria/Coelentera* -- Colentera is a grab bag of colonial marine animals, some of which are sometimes considered to be separate phyla -- Anthozoans(Corals), hydroids, Ctenopora(comb-jellies), Stromatoporoids, Graptolites, Conularids. Modern Practice has replaced Coelentera with Cnidaria and has removed the Graptolites and Ctenopora from the Phylum. About 11000 modern species. Some forms have a good fossil record back to the Cambrian and possibly into the neoproterozoic.

• Cloudinids -- Small Late Proterozoic tubelike or conical fossils consisting of "cup-in cup" segments of calceraecous material..

• Conodonts -- Animals with small phosphatic jaw plates. They originated in the Lower Ordovician and died out in the late Paleozoic. They are thought to be closely related to the chordates, but also have some resemblances to the Chaitognaths. Possible precursors are known from the Cambrian.

• Conulariida -- Conical Paleozoic animals.

• Ctenophora -- Comb Jellies. About 100 modern species of marine animals. Fossil record is poor. A possible Ctenophore is known from the Middle Cambrian.

• Cycliophora -- A recently discovered modern phylum with one Genus Symbion. They are tiny animals living on the teeth of Norwegian lobsters. (No, I am not making this up).

• Echinodermata* -- Marine animals covered with plates. Crinoids, blastoids, sand dollars, sea urchins, etc. Originated in the Lower Cambrian. About 6000 modern species. At least one suspected (but not by me) echinoderm -- Arkarua -- is known from the Neoproterozoic.

• Echiura -- Spoon Worms. Marine worms similar to annelids but unsegmented. The Echiura fossilize poorly and the earliest known specimen in Pennsylvanian. U shaped burrows that could be Echiuran are known back to the Cambrian.

• Entoprocta -- Water dwelling animals

• Euarthropods --

• Gastrotricha** -- Tiny Free living, fresh water and marine dwelling animals. Bilaterally symmetric. Acoleomic, probably. There is a mouth and and anus as well as circulatory and nervous systems with some poorly known sensors. The skelaton is hydrostatic. The body surface has cilia, scales and adhesive tubes. About 450 species known. No Fossil Record.

• Gnathostomulida** - Jaw worms. One order, gnathostoma. Tiny marine animals. No Fossil Record.

• Graptolita -- Colonial animals known from the Upper Cambrian through the Mississippian. Possibly hemichordates. A possible graptolite, Chaunograptus, is known from the Middle Cambrian

• Hemichordata -- Acorn worms, Pterobranchs. Marine worms. May have originated in the Lower or Middle Cambrian. Some workers consifer graptolites to be a class of Hemichordata

• Hyolitha -- Known only from the Lower Cambrian. Conical shells with a cover (operculum) and two supports.

• Kinorhyncha** -- tiny marine animals

• Lobopodia -- A group of large (for the time) free swimming segmented animals from the Lower Cambrian with some arthropod like appendages. Generally considered to be probable arthropods.

• Lophophorata -- Brachiopods and Bryozoa. A grouping based on the presence of an organ called a lophophore. Most authors regard Bryozoa and Brachiopods as separate phyla, The oldest brachiopods date from the latest Pre-Cambrian. Bryozoa appear in the Ordovician.

• Loricifera** - Poorly known sediment dwelling marine animals with about dozen known species. The animals have a head, mouth and digestive system as well as a set of specialized umbrella skelaton like scales at each end that are used to move the animals.. There is no circulatory system and no endocrine system. The body cavity is a pseudocoelum with a mouth and an anus. The animals are bisexual and probably oviparous. There is no fossil record.

• Mesozoa -- An Aceolomata Phylum consisting of the Classes Rhombozoa and Orthonectida. Many organization schemes classify Rhombozoa and Orthonectida as Phyla.

• Mollusca* -- Basically, "snails", "clams", cephalopods and several obscure groups of related animals. Marine/Freshwaret/Terrestrial/Parasitic/Symbiotic. Over 100,000 modern species. Good fossil record back into the Cambrian

• Monoblastozoa -- A curious modern form with no fossil record described as a "tube of cells". Thought to be an animal.

• Nemertea* -- ribbon worms. Marine/freshwater/terestrial/symbiotic.About 800 modern species. Two orders - anopla, enopla

• Nemotoda (Nemertina)* -- round worms, About 20,000 modern species. Marine/Freshwaret/Terrestrial/Parasitic/Symbiotic

• Nematomorpha -- Symbiotic/Parasitic animals

• Onychophora -- "Velvet worms" Caterpillar like terrestrial animals thought to be closely related to the arthropods. Possible Onychopores are known from the Lower Cambrian and possibly the late Pre-Cambrian. Some sources consider them to be a class of arthropoda.

• Orthonectida -- Symbiotic marine animals

• Parazoa - Sponges

• Pentastomatida

• Platyhelmintha* (flatworms) About 15,000 modern species of marine, freshwater and terrestrial animals. Poor Fossil Record. There are a number of classes including Turbellaria, Monogenea, Trematoda, Cestodaria, Cestoda

• Phoronida. Marine animals

• Placozoa -- simple balloon like marine animal with body cavity filled with fluid under pressure. No organs, no mouth, and no digestive track. Characterized by hair like cilia on both the upper and lower surfaces. Eggs and sperm are produced but there are no sexual organs. Asexual reproduction also occurs. Only one or maybe two species known. No fossil record

• Pogonophora -- Beard Worms. Deep sea tube worms often found growing around warm springs. The rear of the body is segmented and they may be related to the annelids. They appear to feed primarily on symbiotic bacteria living in their mouthless bodies. Fossils are rare, but may stretch back to the Vendian sabelliditids.

• Polychaeta -- segmented worms often considered to be an order within the annelid worms

• Porifera -- Sponges. About 8000 modern species of marine and freshwater animals. Fair fossil record. Originated in the Pre-Cambrian. Generally considered to be the first phylum to split off from the root metazoa

• Protozoa -- Single Celled animals with nucleae and certain other advanced characteristics -- usually considered to be a kingdom Protista with as many as 8 phyla

• Priapulida* -- Priapulid worms. Marine worms with an extensible spiny proboscis. Known at least as far back as the Middle Cambrian

• Psuedocoelomates

• Pterobrancia

• Pycnogonida

• Rhombozoa -- parasitic/symbiotic animals

• Rotifera (Rotatorria)* -- About 1800 modern species. Marine/Freshwaret/Terrestrial/Parasitic/Symbiotic

• Sipuncula* -- "Peanut Worms" -- Marine worms with a tentacle surrounded mouth on a completely invertable head end. Some of the larval characteristics are similar to the mollusks.

• Symplasma -- A proposed phylum consisting of the Hexactinallid sponges and their friends and neighbors.

• Tardigrada** - "Water Bears" Small eight legged animals less than a millimeter in length. Marine/Freshwater/Terrestrial. 400 to 800 modern species live primarily in the water films around lichens and mosses. No fossil record.

• Urochordata - Tunicate worms - "Sea Squirts" Sacklike filter feeders with input and output siphons. Some larval forms appear very much like primitive chrodates or hemichordates with a notochord. Some forms have a calcereous spicule that may be preserved as a fossil. Jurassic to Present with one proposed Neoproterozoic form - Yarnemia. Some workers class the Urochordates as a subphylum of the chordata.

• Vendian Forms -- Animals? that are generally flat, segmented, or frondlike with no visible organs other than holdfasts in some varieties. They are probably entirely late pre-Cambrian although some possible Vendian forms have been identified in the Cambrian. Many workers believe that some or all of the Vendians are precursors to modern phyla that arrose in the Cambrian. (But others don't).

• Vetulicolia \ Primitive Deuterostomes from the very early Cambrian of China. The have a body with gills (or at least slits in the vicinity of the pharynge and a segmented tail. Thought to be ancestoral to the chordates and other phyla.

• Vestimentifera -- Deep Sea worms similar to, and probably related to, the Pogonophora

• Uncertain Cambrian Forms: Anomalocaris, Nectocaris, Wiwaxia, Chancelloria, Halkeriids, Opabinia, Dinomischus, Amiskwia. Etc.

• Xiphosura

• Plantae

• Diatomacaea

• Charophyta

• Algae

• Miscellaneous Organic remains

• Ichnofossils

• Bacteria

• Acritarchs

Phyla marked in bold are the accepted "34 phyla" from one list.

*Some memebers are meiofaunal

**All members are meiofaunal

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Corumbella

From the Corumba Group of the Mato Grosso in Brazil. Corumbella is a tubelike Vendian fossil with a medial line and very numerous circular bands. The diameter is 4.5mm. Corumbella is thought possibly to be a Scyphozoan polyp. McMenamin has proposed that it might be a primitive Conularid

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Corynexochida

Order Corynexochida, Kobayashi, 1935 Elongate, subelliptical trilobites generally with large pygidia. Semicircular cephalons usually with well developed genal spines. Glabellae long and sometimes swelling toward the front. Lateral furrows distinct. Eyes elongate, narrow often with ridges. Thorax 5 to 11 segments. Well developed pleural furrows. Terminations spinose. Pygidium large to medium often with spines{3} The Corynexids are very common in the Middle Cambrian of North America, but they first appear relatively early in the Lower Cambrian. Personally, I can't see what the criteria are for distinguishing between Corynexia and Ptychoparia Taxonomy (per The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology)

• Phylum Arthropoda

• Class Trilobita Walch, 1771

• Order Corynexochida, Kobayashi, 1935

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Craniates

A clade containing all animals with bony or carteligenous skulls.. Roughly equivalent to the subphylla vertebrata and Hyperotreta of the phylum chordata. If one assumes that skulls evolved only once, Craniata includes all animals evolved from the first animal that has a skull. It includes chordates -- which in turn include the vertebrates. Craniates also include the Hemichordates and Cephalochordates.

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Crassifimbra

From the Lower Cambrian of North America(3)

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Cricocosmia

A (probably) priapulid worm (probably) from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale of Yunnan. Described by Hou and Sun in 1988

• C. jinningensis - Hou and Sun 1988 \ Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale - Yunnan, China

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Cross-Replication

A mechanism whereby a nucleotide reacts with material in its environment to create a complementary molecule which can then assemble a copy of the original molecule. Thus a chemical creates a "mold" which then creates a "cast" identical to the original molecule. Cross-Replication is more complex than direct replication where a molecule would directly replicate itself. But Cross-Replication is more flexible. Living creatures appear to use cross replication exclusively.

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Crumillospongia

A Lower Cambrian Sponge

• Crumillospongia frondosa (Walcott, 1919) - Maotianshan Shale, China

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Crustaceans

Crustacea are (usually) aquatic, carnivorous, arthropods with flexible chitinous shells. In some cases, rigid portions of the shells may be strengthened with Calcium Carbonate. The five foremost segments of the animal are fused to form the head (cephalon). In some classes, additional segments may be fused to form a rigid cephalothorax. Or the segments immediately to the rear of the head may be fused to form a Carapace. The limbs on the cephalon are generally biramous. Modern crustacea (and presumably their ancestors as well) are also distinguised by having nauplius larvae. Nauplius larvae have a single median eye and three segments with appendages. Additional segments are added at the rear to form the complete animal. A metamorphisis to the final form may occur.

The Class Crustacea is subdivided into a number of subclasses. A well preserved 0.5mm Crustacean is known from the Cambrian of Strophshire, England in beds thought to date from about 511Ma.

• Agnostia: Originated in the Upper Lower Cambrian, but (usually) treated as an order of Trilobita instead of as a subclass of Crustacea

• Trilobita: Originated in the basal Lower Cambrian

• Homopoda: Originated in the Lower Cambrian

• Xenopoda: A class created to deal with the Middle Cambrian form Sidneyia

• Archaeostraca: Originated in the Lower Cambrian

• Branchiopoda: Originated in the Lower Cambrian

• Ostracoda: Small shelled animals. A common fossil in Ordovician and later sediments

• Cirripedia: Barnacles. Originated sometime in the Cambrian

• Malacostraca: Crabs, Lobsters, etc. Originated sometime in the Cambrian

Early Crustacea

In addition to the Phoshatocopina, Martinssonia elongata Müller & Walossek, 1986 , Henningsmoenicaris,Cambropachycope clarksoni Walossek & Müller, 1990, Cambrocariss baltica

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Cruziana

A trace fossil consisting of two parallel rows of herringbone patterned ridges with a central groove and sometimes with scratch marks running along the line of the trail. Cruziana is fairly firmly establisthed to be the tracks left by multilegged arthropods -- primarily trilobites. Trilobites (at least some of them) are thought to have dug in the top layer of sediment with their legs and moved food found there to their mouths up a food groove in the middle of the body leaving a quite distinctive trace pattern. Cruziana are generally found in sandstones where body fossils are rare or absent. Seilacher believes that most "species" of Cruziana reflect the feeding paths of different species of trilobites rather than different feeding modes for a smaller number of species. Cruziana first appears near the Lower Cambrian boundary and is common Paleozoic formations worldwide. Found in the Lake Louise/Kicking Horse Pass area of British Columbia/Alberta, in South Africa, in Australia, Canada, US, Argentina, Greenland, Scandanavia, Spain, Russia, India, and China. [Cruziana species changes occur at the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary and are used as a marker for that boundary in some regions].

Cruziana Rugosa - Canada (Gog Group)

Cruziana semiplacata - Canada (Gog Group)

Cruziana furcifera - Western Canada (Gog Group), Newfoundland, British Isles, Europe

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Cryptozoic Era

A name once applied to the period prior to the first appearance of the Cambrian hard shelled faunas. The name -- which means "hidden life" -- is not much used nowdays.

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Cryptozoon

A Cambrian algae that forms stromatolites. Well known to 19th century paleontologists from exposures near Saratoga Springs, NY where it forms the Ritchie Petrified Gardens. Included because some 19th Century paleontologists tended to ascribe what might in the modern world be a other genera to Cryptozoon. Cryptozoon is found in many formations well back into the Cambrian. In 1931, Sir Albert Charles Seward a world renouned authority on fossil plants opined that Cryptozoon was not an algal form, and probably not organic. For several decades -- until undoubted cyanobacteria were found in Gunflint Chert stromatolites -- the organic nature of Cryptozoon was softpeddled.

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'cups'

Waggoner's term for a form that has not been formally described. Small mineralized fossils resembling a wineglass. Figured by Langille 1974, Grotzinger et. al. 1995 F2A - Namibia Number [105] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Cubozoa

"Box Jellies" A jellyfish like form with a squarish bell and four bunches of tentacles. Known from the Pennsylvanian (probably) through the present. The Neoproterozoic form Kimberella was originally thought to be a Cubozoan but is now regarded as something else ... perhaps a protomollusk. It is generally agreed that the Cubozoa are not Jellyfish (scyphozoans) , but are related to the Jellyfish. In the phylum Cnidaria. ... Except of course by those who put Cubozoans into the phylum Ctenophora (basically Cnidarians without stinging cells?)

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Curumericus

An anamalocarid that possibly has lanceolate scales on its back. Appendages are biramous (with legs). There is a distinct partially mineralized shell. C. Decoratus

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Cyanobacteria

Blue-Green Algae. Primitive one celled creatures probably dating back to 3.5 billion years.

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Cyclomedusa

Circular fossils with a circular bump in the middle and as many as 5 circular growth ridges around it. Many specimens are small but specimens in excess of 20cm are known. The concentric disks are not necessarily circular especially when adjacent individuals interfere with each other's growth. Many radial segment lines -- somewhat pineapple like extend across the outer disks. A few specimens show what might be a stem extending from the center in some direction or other. Cyclomedusa was originally thought to be a Jellyfish, but some specimens seem to be distorted to accommodate adjacent specimens on the substrate and the markings do not match the musculature pattern of modern Jellyfish. It has been conjectured to be a holdfast for some stalked form -- possibly an octacoral -- or possibly something else entirely. There are a number of species described including Cyclomedusa davidi. It is thought that they may represent different types of preservation rather than different varieties. Known from Ediacara, Finnmark, Charnwood Forest, Olenek, North China, Newfoundland, NW Canada, Podolia, Urals, White Sea (Winter Coast) Number [47] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.


Non-copyrighted sketch

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Cylindromyces

A precambrian form from the late precambrian of the Woodchopper area in Alaska

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Dactyloidites

A jellyfish from the Lower Cambrian of New York

• Dactyloidites asteroides

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Daliania

A pre-cambrian medusoids from North China - Apparently described only in Chinese.(10i-k)

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Daguinaspididae

The Daguinaspididae are a family of Redlichiid trilobites from the Lower Cambrian. They have and elongate body with very small pygidium. There are heart shaped to somewhat elliptical cephalons with long eye ridges curving back to the end of the rim. 16 or 17 thoracic segments. They are found in the early Lower Cambrian of North Africa/Morocco and Western North America. Taxonomy (per The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology)

Phylum Arthropoda

• Class Trilobita Walch, 1771

• Order Redlichiida Richter, 1933

• Suborder Olenellina Resser, 1938

• Family Daguinaspididae Hupe', 1953

There are four genera in the family:

• Genus Daguinaspis

• Genus Eodaguinaspis

• Genus Epidaguinaspis

• Genus Choubertella

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Daguinaspis

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Dailyatia

A member of the small shelly fauna thought to be related to tommatia. From the Cambrian of SouthEast Australia. Described by Bischoff in 1976 as a Cirriped Crustacean

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Dates

The date estimates for the Cambrian have moved dramatically later in time since 1980. Current (Bowring and Erwin) estimates put the base of the Cambrian at 543Ma when the trace fossil Phycodes Pedum appears. The Tommotian faunas appear to date from about 530Ma. The Atabanian extends from 530Ma to 525Ma. The Middle Cambrian is at 510 Ma, the Upper Cambrain at 500Ma and the Ordovician at 490Ma. The Vendian starts in the time from 605 to 580Ma.

[In 1980, Harland put The Vendian would have started at 630Ma, the Lower Cambrian at 590Ma, The Middle Cambrian at 540Ma , the Upper Cambrian at 520, and the Ordovician around 508Ma.,.]

http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/palaeontologie/Stuff/casu6.htm

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Dauginopsis

Treatise Description page O196 "Callavia eucharis Walcott, 1913 SD SHITEHOUSE 1939] Differs from Nevadia in having longer cephalon with longer glabella, short preglabellar field or lacking it, border wide. Thorax of 17 to 23 segments; character of posterior part of thorax incompletely known..."

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Deinococcus
A gram positive, aerobic bacteria that resists gamma radiation at levels above 5kGy. These levels are two orders of magnitude higher than other bacteria and an order of magnitude greater than bacterial spores.

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Delgadella

A Pagetoid trilobite from Portugal.

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Denying Formation

A Neoproterozoic formatin found in the Eastern Yangtze Gorges of China where it lies above the Doushantuo formation. The Denying formation contains a few metazoan fossils..

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Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Originally, 'Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid'. Organic compounds consisting of long chains of the sugar Deoxyribose with the amino acids adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine attached at specific sites. It is normally found as long, paired, helically coiled chains. Each adenine in one strand is paired with a thymine in the other and each guanine paired with a cytosine. DNA has the property that it's sequences of acids can be used as "scripts" for the manufacture of RNA which in turn can synthesize proteins and other organic compounds. DNA is the substance that defines how plants and animals are constructed and develop. In addition to containing scripts for constructing creatures, DNA itself can be replicated by a relatively simple process. The strands of DNA are known as Chromosomes. Individual encoding sites are strung out down the chromosomes and are known as genes. The encoding in DNA can also be used to produce a similar material known as RNA which is the actual agent that produces proteins, enzymes, etc. It is believed that all characteristics of living creatures are encoded in genes and that evolution progresses by altering genetic material. DNA is mostly found in the nucleus of cells. Comparison of genetic material encoded in DNA and RNA is used to establish relationships between various lifeforms and to attempt to reconstruct how they evolved.

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Deuterostome

Multicellular animals where the initial opening in the developing animal becomes the anus of the eventual animal. There are three ofther traits that identify deuterostomes. Enterocoelous development of the coelom, Radial cleavage, and Indeterminate Cleavage. Deuterostomes include echinoderms and chordates. Animals where the initial opening becomes the mouth are known as Protostomes.

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'diamondfrond'

Waggoner's term for a Vendian form that has not been formally described. It is a frondlike fossil with a long stalk that passes into a nondescript frond with a diamond or spindle shape. Possibly related to the pennatulaceans. Figured by Jenkins 1984 - Flinders Ranges of South Australia. Ediacara Number [14] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Dickinsonia

A ovoid fossil with somewhat radial tubes from a (sometimes missing) central ridge. The ends are different with close spaced tubes on on end and larger, more widely spaced tubes on the other. However, it is unclear whether there is an actual head and tail. Dickensonia somewhat resembles the Polychaete worm Spinther. Thought by some possibly to be an annelid worm. It has also been described as a jellyfish, coral, sea anemone, an arthropod, a bacterium, a new phylum, a new kingdom, and as an alien animal. Four species are known Diskinsonia costata, Diskinsonia lissa, Diskinsonia tenuis, and Diskinsonia rex. D. Rex can be as large as 43 cm. - {6} Dickensonia is known from Alice Springs, Ediacara, India-Rajastan Podolia, and White Sea (Winter Coast). Number [80] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Didazoon

In a November 2001 Shu, Morris, Han, Chen, Zhang, Zhang, and Lui published a paper in nature suggesting a primitive phyllum Vetulicolia including the genera Didazoon, Xidazoon and Ventulicola \ all from Chengjiang.

• Didazoon haoae \ Chenjiang, China

http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/template.cfm?name=OFNANP

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Didymaulichnus

A Lower Cambrian trace fossil found in the Lake Louise/Kicking Horse Pass area of British Columbia/Alberta as well as the Bright Angel/Abrigo shales in Arizona. Narrow straight or slightly curved tracks variously described as bilobed or as depressed with narrow, raised edges. Thought to be grazing trails of Gastropods

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Dinoflagellate

A single celled animal. The modern forms are both marine and fresh water, and are responsible for "Red Tides" -- sudden infestations of large numbers of organisms whose presence makes seafood poisonous. A sexual/cold water stage of dinoflagellates forms a hard cyst that fossilizes well so the fossil record extends back into the Silurian and probably into the PreCambrian. Suspected dinoflagellates have been found in rocks from 800ma at Victoria Island in the Canadian Arctic. Biochemical evidence supports the thesis that target organisms from the Cambrian thought to be dinoflagellates very likely were. Refer to Acritarchs for species references.

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Dinomishus

A small sessile animal of unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC and the Maotsianshan Shale of China. The animal is a few cm in length and consists of a stalk and a cup shaped calyx containing a mouth and anus. The calyx supports about 20 petal shaped bracts. Dinomischus is possibly related to the phylum Entoprocta which in turn somewhat resembles the Bryozoa. Tentatively regarded as the only known species in an otherwise unknown phylum. It is not known how the animal grew, how the bracts were attached, which parts were movable, or whether there are any hard parts.{1}

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Dorypygidae

Family dorypygidae Kobayashi, 1935. Oval Corynexochid trilobites with fairly large pygidia. Distinguished by a pair of pits in the cephalon on the sides of the glabella adjacent to its front end. Thorax is 7 or 8 segments. Pygidia usually have a margin and often have spines. The family is found primarily in the Lower and Middle Cambrian of North America, Avalonia, and Siberia.

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Doushanto Formation

Late Proterozoic beds in China that include well preserved microfossils as well as carbon film impressions of macrofossils from near the top of the formation. The most studied rocks are phophates and cherts that apparently just predate the radiation of Ediacaran life.

The formation is exposed in a number of areas with somewhat different facies and faunas.

• Eastern Yangtze Gorges -- prokaryotes and protists from subtidal marine environments in cherts in carbonate beds.

• Weng'an region (650km SW of Yangtze Gorges) -- 31 taxa of acanthomorphic and sphaeromorphic acritarchs, thalloid algae, 12 taxa of cyanobacteria including Salome hubeiensis and Obruchevella parva; 8 taxa of algae -- some definitely Rhodphyta.

• Mianxian Region near Shaanzi/Sichuan border -- acanthomorphic acritarchs from phosphatic grainstones.

• Doushantuo Formation

• vase-shaped microfossils Duan and Cao 1992)

• Sponge Spicules Tang 1978, Ding 1985

• Skeltonized eumetazoans Xue 1992

• Microburrows Avramik 1985

• Compression macrofossils in carbonaceous mudstone Zhu, Chen, Xiao, Steiner, Zing 1984, 1991, 1992., 1994, 1996

• Sinian System -- von Richtoven (1882). Largely unaltered proterozoic and Cambrian rocks in North China. Subsequently used by Willis (1907) for Cambrian and Ordovician rocks and by Grabau (1992) for proterozoic rock. Used by Lee and Kao to describe what turned out to be non-age equivalent proterozoic rocks in the eastern Yangtze gorges (South China) and Jixian region (North China). Formalized in 1975 to specifically deal with the late proterozoic sequence in the eastern Yangtze gorges.

• Liantuo Formation. Siliclastic late proterozoic rocks in Yangtze gorges. Overlain by the Nantuo tillite. Tuffs within the formation are dated at 748 M.A.

• Nantuo Tillete. Late Proterozoic tillite (silstone? laced with glacially transported bolders). Overelies Liantuo formation. Overlain by Dpushantuo Formation Is thought to represent Varianger glaciation, but could be Sturtian.

• Doushantuo Formation. Proterozoic ikxed carbonates, phosphorites and shales. Overlies the Nantuo Tillite and underlies the Denying Formation. The lowest 10m contain dolomites that seem to be "cap carbonates" deposited at the end of the Varinger glaciation. They grade upward through cross bedded dolomitic beds into 40-300m of phosphitic shaley rocks which transition back to dolomitic cherty carbonates higher in the formation. The cherts are fossiliferous. For the most part, two depositation cycles seem to be recorded in the formation.

• Denying dolomite. Latest proterozoic dolostones overlying the Doushantuo formation in the eastern Yangtze gorges.

• Zhongyicun Formation. Basal Cambrian rocks Pb-Uo dated from lead depleted Bentonites as no older than 539Ma.

• Shinyantou Shales. Cambrian shales overlying the Ahongyicun but Rb-Sr dated at 587+-17Ma

• Doushantuo localities -- above Liantuo village giganteus Sm-Nd dates are at 645.4 +- 23.6Ma but are thought to be incorrect.

• Hubei Province China Precambrian phosphatic rocks. Stromatolites. Wand 1984

Shaanxi Privince, China Fossilferous Doushantuo formation rocks near Mianxian. Some phosphatic lenses are compused almost entirely of microfossils. Relationship of the Doushantuo beds in the Yangtze Gorges are somewhat vague. Phosphatic Microstructures have been found in phosphatic dolomites in the vicinity of Weng'an China. They include.single bladed and three bladed spicules, Quadratitubus orbigoniatus, Sinocyclocyclicus, a cap like fossil and ambiguous microfossils that might be acanthomorphic acritarchs.

There are also carbonaceous compression fossils in black shales near the top of the formation that include three dozen species of branching algae including some with differentiated holdfasts. Probable green and red algae are identified as are possible brown algae.

'Dumplings'

Irregular discoids with irregular lumpy lobes. More formally identified as 'lobate discoidal remains'. The fossils are known from Newfoundland {14}

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Eager Formation

Brown and gray Lower Cambrian shales in the Kootenay and Columbia River Valleys of British Columbia. Ollenelid trilobites -- Ollenelus and Wanneria are common. Best known localities are at Cranbrook and Ft Steele with most collecting done at the Cranbrook Rifle Club Site just outside Ft Steele.

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Eagle, Alaska

Late Proterozoid or Early Cambrian clastics and meta-volcanics. Fossils inclue worm traces; a few coccoid and filimentous microbe fossils,: ?Sphaerocongregus sp., ?Cyanobacteria, and protists

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Early Atmosphere

Thought to have been a mixture of Methane, Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, Ammonia, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Water Vapor. Oceans included large amounts of dissolved ferrous iron that preciptiated out as Oxygen was released by photosynthesis and formed insoluble iron oxides.

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Early Cambrian Geography:

Reconstruction the geography of 550 to 600 million years ago is no small problem. In large areas of the continents, rocks from Early Cambrian and late PreCambrian times are missing, It isn't always clear whether none were deposited or whether they were deposited then subsequently eroded. Continental rifting and drift have scattered rocks that were once near each other into regions many thousands of kilometers apart. Based on studies of fossils from the Cambrian and later, a rough concept of Cambrian geology has been evolving. Geography: The rough geography that is evolving defines at least eight regions:

• Avalonia

• Baltica

• Gondwanaland

• West Gondwanaland

• East Gondwanaland

• Khazakhia

• Laurentia

• North China

• Siberia

• {Taconia}

• Yangtzeia

It is currently believed that a supercontinent called Rodinia formed about a billion years ago. It broke up in the late preCambrian. Based on geomagnetic and other data, it appears that the later days of Rodinia may have featured a low latitude, possibly planet wide, glaciation. Once the continent broke up, plates appear to have move at rates exceeding 23cm/year -- far faster than modern plate motions. (Very) Roughly 600,000 years ago, Rodinia split up. Laurentia and Baltica moved very rapidly from equatorial latitudes to the South Polar latitudes after which Laurentia moved rapidly back to the equator during Vendian time. Current conjecture about the breakup of Rodnia has East Gondwana splitting off roughly 750,000 to 600,000 years ago and heading for the poles thereby causing an ice age. The fragments may have briefly reassembled about 600Ma as a second supercontintent named Pannotia. Baltica and Lautrentia split apart about 600,000 years ago. Maps are available on the World Wide Web at http://www.scotese.com Return to Main Topics

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East Gondwana:

A Cambrian continent. Rocks from East Gondwana are now found in Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica. Shelf deposits are found in Western New South Wales and South Australia where the first Ediacaran fossils were identified as well as in Western Antarctica (i.e. West Longitudes). Deeper water deposits occur in Tasmania, Victoria, New Zealand and Antarctica. Volcanic sediments are found in Northern and Central Australia. Return to Early Cambrian Geography

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East Siberia

Microfossils are found in proterozoic rocks of the Svetlay Formation and Yudoma (vendian age) formation of the Uchra-Maya uplift. Vladimir N. Sergeev is known to be investigating. Siphonophycus is reported from the Svetlay Formation.

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Echinodermata

A widespread modern phylum of animals characterised by a covering of distinctive calcerous plates (Stereom), as well as vascular and nervous systems. The earliest undoubted Echinoderms are found in the very Early Cambrian. Early forms included Edrioasteroids, Eocystids (If there is such a thing), Eocrinids (apparently prototype Cystoids rather than Crinoids), Stylophorans, and Helioplacids. Later forms include crinoids, echinoids (sand dollars), starfish, and brittle stars. The first crinoids may date to the Middle Cambrian form Echmatocrinus. Many (all?) modern forms exhibit five fold radial symmetry at some point in their life cycle. One precambrian form, Arkarua, has been associated with the echinoderms because it has five fold symmetry. However, Arkarua is known only from molds that show no signs of body plates, a mouth or an anus. Most early echinoderms do not have five fold symmetry in the forms that have fossilized. Indeed only the handful of Edrioasteroids seem to have five fold symmerty. Some Cambrian limestones are rich in echinoderm plates, many of which do not seem to belong to known articulated forms.

Echinoderms are dueterostomes and thus probably more closely related to chordates than to annelids, arthropods, etc.

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Echmatocrinus

A crinoid or crinoid like animal from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. There is a holdfast, stem and "calyx" with up to ten (eight?) short, heavily plated, rigid (?), uniserial arms. The stem is covered with irregular plates and is not a series of columnals as in Ordovician and later crinoids. The armor is apparently composed of thin sutured and imbricated plates. However, many of the plates seem to be internal rather than external. This is not a normal echinoderm characteristic.

Sprinkle (1973, 1995) has described Echmatocrinus as an echinoderm assigned as a crinoid of order Echmatocrinida. - ?Class Crinoidea, Order Echmatocrinida (Sprinkle, 1973, 1995). Both assignments are questionable. Ausich and Babcock (1998) have assigned it as an Octacoral. If Echmatocrinus is a crinoid, it is the earliest known crinoid by many tens of millions of years. Other known crinoids are Ordovician or younger.

Five species of Echmatocrinus are known from the Burgess Shale. Holdfasts have been found attached to worm tube Selkirkia and hyolithid shells.

• Echmatocrinus brachiatus Sprinkle 1973 -- Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale

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Ediacara

A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. Sites are in the Ediacaria Hills of the Flinders Ranges of the state of South Australia. Discovered and described in 1946 by geologist R.C,Sprigg, the fossils were ignored until 1958 when a serious investigation was undertaken by Brian Daily. these are the best publicized and most extensively investigated of the Vendian faunas. The fossils occur where thin layers of sand covered mud flats and their inhabitants. The fossils are usually molds usually of the lower surface with sandstone casts of the fill of the lower surface. Sometimes they are molds of the lower surface in mudstone and the upper surface in sandstone. A great many fossils are known from the region: Arkarua, Beltanella, Brachina, 'Bulbousfrond', Charniodiscus, Chondroplon, Conomedusites, cyclomedusa, 'Diamondfrond', Dickinsonia, Ediacaria, Eoporpita, Gehlingia, Glaessnerina, Hiemalora, Inaria, Lorenzinites, Marewadea, Mawsonites, Medusinites, Nemiana, Ovatoscutum, Palaeophragmodictya, Parvancorina, Phyllozoon, Praecambridium, Protodipleurosoma, Pteridinium, Rangea, Rugoconites, Spriggia, Spriggina, Tribrachidium, 'Trilobite', Wadea. There are said to be numerous additional forms that are not formally described. The fossiliferous beds are shallow water marine sandstones -- probably tidal sandflats. (10ax-10bd) They are thought to be compressed vertically due to post preservation dehydration of the mud layer.

The animals were originally thought to be predominantly free swimming forms, but later consensus is that they may very well be more or less sessile, bethnic forms.

It was originally thought that the fossilization of these animals was due to unique depositation conditions, but it was later recognized that there are five distinct facies in the Ediacaran section in the Flinders ranges and that all are fossiliferous. It is thought that the preservation of these forms was due to the presence of stiff material (collagen) in the "skin" and the general primitive state of predators which apparently lacked hard mouth parts and did not burrow deeply. It has been claimed that predators had to be poorly designed for burrowing due to the need for large body area in order to absorb the limited available Oxygen. However, there is no evidence that Oxygen levels increased substantially at the end of the Neoproterozoic.

http://www.pa.utulsa.edu/PA/0101.pdf

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Ediacara Member

The formation within which Ediacaran biotas are found. It is a member within the Rawnsley Quarzite or the Pound Subgroup. The Eciacara member is deposited on an erosional surface in the Chace Quartzite. According to Gehling, the fossil bearing layers occur at the boundaries between channel filling sandstones and overlying silt and sand layers.

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Ediacaria

Ediacaria flinderesi. Concentric stacks of 2 or 3 disks up to 15 cm in diameter. Known from NW Canada (Werneke Mtns, Yukon territory). Also reported from the Isaac Formation in the Cariboo Mtns in BC and from the Upper Cambrian(!) of Booley Bay, County Wexford, Eire. E booleyi has about six radial divisions extending across the outer several disks. It may not be a member of Ediacaria, but McMenamin believes that it is probably an Ediacaran.


Ediacaria is known from a number of areas: Ediacara, Finnmark, NW Canada, Olenek, Podolia, Urals, White Sea, [County Wexford, Ireland? (Upper Cambrian)(10bq)] Ediacaria flinderisi from the Isaac formation of the Cariboo Mtns of British Columbia Number [51] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Ediacaran Period

A geological period proposed by Cloud and Glaessner in 1982 to cover the period from 670 (570?) to 550 Ma when Ediacaran faunas are found worldwide. It is essentially the same as the subsequiently accepted Vendian Period

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Ediacaran Faunas:

An alternative term for Vendian Faunas. Sometimes used for a broader fauna including both the Vendazoa and other forms that coexisted with them.

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Edrioasteroids

Primitive echinoderms somewhat resembling a tiny starfish plastered onto a small sand dollar. They are often found crushed into a jumble of small body plates. Edrioasteroids are primarily Ordovician through Devonian, but at least two specimens have been found in the Lower Cambrian.

• Stromatocystites walcotti Schubert -- Newfoundland

• Genus unknown, Poleta Formation, White Mtns, CA

• Walcottidiscus Burgess Shale, BC

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Ekwipagetia

A Lower Cambrian trilobite from Northern Greenland. Ekwipagetia is a pagetid trilobite with three thoracic segments. It has small free cheeks. The cephalon and pygidium are ornamented. There is a clear rim around the pygidium along the front margin of the cephalon and along the rear margin of the cephalon. There are two smallish eyes. It is a member of the family Yukoniidae. There is a drawing at http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/triloquiz.htm.

• Ekwipagetia marginata

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Elasenia

No data on Internet Found in: Podolia and White Sea. Number [63] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Eldonia

A crescent shaped animal from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Walcott identified it as a Holothurian (Sea Cucumber -- an echinoderm. The animal is disk shaped with a thick -- probably stiff cuticle, a U-shaped gut, a lophophore, and an unmineralized exoskeleton. Dzik interprets Eldonia as a lophphorate rather than an echinoderm.

• Eldonia ludwigiiWalcott

http://www.yale.edu/ypmip/locations/burgess/5824.html

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Ellipsocephalacea

Redlichea like Lower and Middle Cambrian trilobites found in Europe, Asia and the Atlantic province of North America. They purportedly have somewhat longer eyes than the Redlichids. There appear to be innumerable genera and species, many of which are surely valid

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Elliptocephalus

A trilobite somewhat resembling Wanneria from the Lower Cambrian of the Taconic region of Eastern North America. The cephalon is typically Ollenelid, The body is tapering slightly with distinct spines on each of the 13 thoracic segments. The pygidium is small but not so small as Wanneria.

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Emeraldella

An arthropod on unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC. The animal has a head shield and 11 broad segments. There is a narrow doublure on the front and sides of the headshield. Emeraldella has a pair of long very flixible antennae with 110 or more segments, followed by a pair of short legs and 4 leg/gill pairs. The 11 trunk segments each have pair of gills and legs on each segment. The rod like legs had feet composed of three curved spines. The trunk segments overlap each other by 50% of their width and are assumed to have articulated. The final two body segments are cylindrical with no appendages. The animal ends with a long spike tail about the same length as the thorax.. The tail spike appears to be segmented in some specimens.{1}

• Emeraldella brocki Walcott 1911 (E. problemetica Simonetta 1964)

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Emmonsaspis

A tadpole-like or worm-like animal from the Burgess Shale. It is apparently segmented, but no trace of a spinal cord is present. It has been proposed as a vendian animal and also as a primitive ancestor of the vertebrates. Walcott identified it as a Polychaete worm. At least 46 segments with two filamentous branches (walking legs) on the body segments. Faint jointed appendages extend forward from the front of the head. Has not been restudied. No modern interpretation is available.

• E Worthanella

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Emu Bay Shale

A Lower Cambrian site on Kangaroo Island off the coast of South Australia. The outcrop is on the East side of Emu Bay where the Emu Bay Shale is deposited above the White Point Conglomerate. Fossils are also found at a second locality known as Big Gully. In addition to well preserved trilobites Redlichia takooensis and Hsuaspis bilobata some soft bodied animals are found including Anomalocaris, Wiwaxia, Naroaia, Isoxys, Tuzoia, Myoscolex and Palaeoscolex. Some trilobite soft parts are preserved. The deposits appear to be a shallow water facies. http://members.tripod.com/~Cambrian/EmuBay2

A Lower Cambrian formation exposed at Emu Bay on Kangaroo Island. Fossils include trilobites (Redlichia takooensis, Hsuaspis bilobata) as well as a Burgess Shale type soft bodies faunas. It is s0mewhaat younger thant the Chenjiang, China deposits. This deposit is a near shore deposit with extensive mineralization (phosphatization) of soft tissues. The type locality is on the E side of Emu Bay. It conformally overlies the White Point conglomerate. Fossils include Hsuaspis, Redlichia, hyolithes, prachiopods, Chacelloria. A second exposure at Big Gully unconformally overlies the White Point, and yields trilobites, Anomalocaris briggsi, Isoxys, Tuzoia, Paleoscolex, Myoscolex

Endosymbiosis

A theory that some structures in Eukaryotic cells \ specifically mitochondira, chloroplasts and flagella are prokaryotic cells incorporated into the body of Eukaryotic cells in a mutually beneficial manner. Often referred to as Serial Endosymbiosis Theory.

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England

A large Island off the West Coast of Europe where Cambrian and Precambrian rocks are exposed.

Reported proterozoic and Neoproterozoic sites include

• Charnwood Forest (also includes some early Paleozoic beds)

• Nuneaton

• Malvern Hills

• Shropshire, Radnor, Llangynog

• Wales SE of Menai Strait

• Angelsley and the Lleyn Peninsula

• Snowdonia (near fringes)

http://www.jncc.gov.uk/gcr/gcrweb/GCRseries%202/Volume%2020/PrecambV202ed.htm

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Enorama Shale

A nonglacial formation between Sturtian and Mainoan (Varanger) glacial beds in the Flinders ranges (Adelaide geosyncline) of South Australia. 14 separate stromatolite reefs are present in the shale. The reefs started as mounds and grew into reefs in some cases. The reefs may be as much as 50m high and 200 across.

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Eoptychoparia

A ptychoparid triolobite from the Lower-Middle Cambrian Pioche shale of Nevada.

Eoptychoparia piochensis, Cambrian, Pioche Formation

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Eoagnostus

A Spinagnostid agnostid trilobite from the Lower Cambrian Kinzers Formation of Pennsylvania, The gabella and pygidium are simple and are surrounded by a wide raised band and a broad raised rim. Other members of the family are mostly Middle Cambrian and are found worldwide.{3}

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Eocambrian Period:

A geological period covering the period from 670 (570?) to 550 Ma when Ediacaran faunas are found worldwide. It is essentially the same as the subsequently accepted Vendian Period

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Eocrinoids

Echinoderms similar to crinoids found throughout the Cambrian. Eocrinoids have a holdfast and a body capped by a number of "arms" (brachioles). Later forms evolved a stalk. Although Eocrinoids superficially resemble crinoids, the Eocrinoids are thought to be ancestral to the blastoids and not to be ancestral to the crinoids. The Eocrinoids apparently were largely replaced by the true crinoids at about the beginning of the Ordovician and died out completely in the Silurian. In NE Spain eocrinoids are found in association with chancelloria, hyolithes, sponges, trilobites and inarticulate brachiopods. Also known from the Lower Cambrian Latham Shale of California, and Middle Cambrian Burgess and Marjum shales of British Columbia and Utah Overall, 30 genera or so of eocrinoids are known. How many are Early Cambrian is not called out.

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Eocystites

Primitive echinoderms with a lumpy calyx, a stem and a number of arms on top. Calyx and stem plates may have patterns or radial ridges. Plates are irregularly shaped and arranged.Found at the base of the Lower Cambrian Poleta Formation in the White Mountains of California. Also in the Lower/Middle Pioche shale of Nevada and Utah.

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Eodaguinaspis Hupe 1953

A trilobite

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Eodiscidae

Eodiscidae is a family of small trilobites with pygidia the same size and shape as the cephalon. It is one of the two families in the suborder Eodiscina. No free cheeks. Eyeless. Tails are trilobite like with 4 to 12 rings. Two or three thoracic segments. Some genera have a single long central spine on the rear of the glabella. found in the Lower and MIddle Cambrian of North America, Eastern North America, the Baltic, and Europe.

• Calodiscus

• Serrodiscus

• Weymouthia

• 3 Middle Cambrian Genera

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Eodiscina

A suborder of Agnostida that includes the two trilobite families of Agnostid Trilobites -- the Pagetides and the Eodiscids. Pagetids look like small trilobites with only three segments in the thorax. Eodiscids are similar but are blind and have rather untrilobitelike cephalons.

Eodiscina is a suborder of the Agnostid trilobites. It is divided into two families of small trilobites with two or three thoracic segments with trilobite-like pygidia and plain cephalons varying from agnostid like to more trilobitelike with free cheeks and eyes. Eodiscina is divided into two families -- the Eodicinidae and the Pagetiidae. Both families are found in both North American and European areas. Presumably they represent transitional forms between one of the other trilobite orders and the agnostids and/or the descendants of those transitional forms. The Pagetiidae are the more "trilobitelike" of the two families.

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Eoleptonema

A primitive(?) bacteria(?). A similar microfossil has been found in 3.4Ga stromatolites from the Towers Formation in the Warrowoona Group in Australia. It is 1.8 to 2.1 um wide and over 100um long. The Warrawoona rocks have elevated Carbon and Silicon relative to the matrix.

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Eoporpita

A Vendian animal consisting of a small circular disc surrounded by a multitude of straight radial "tentacles". Up to 6 cm in diameter. Originally thought to be a cnidarian (specifically a chondrophorine) it is now thought to be something somewhat similar to a Sea Anemone. Found on the Winter Coast of the White Sea.

A "tenticulate disk consisting of a small central disk enclosed in 7 circumferential blops inside a circle of 40 or more overlapping stubby radial tenticulate blobs of varying lengths. - Ediacara, NW Canada, Podolia, White Sea, Number [41] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Eoredlichia

A trilobite from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale of Yunnan Province, China

• Eoredlichia intermedia - Yunnan Province, China

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Eosphaera

A microbe from the 2100Ma Gunflint Chert. It consists ofd a spherical core about 20um in diameter surrounded by a number of small spheres a few um in diameter spaced out at intervals. The whole is encased in a spherical membrane. Eosphaera appears to have been planktonic.

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Eozoon

Green and white layered rocks found in 1100Ma Laurentian limestones along the Ottawa River West of Montreal, Canada. Identified by gelogist John Dawson as large forams, and described as Eozoon Canadense they are now believed to be igneous intrusive rocks. Similar forms have been found in modern volcanic rocks.

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Epidaguinaspis

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Ericiasphaera

An ornamented foram from phosphoprites in the neoproterozoic Doushantou Formration from China.

• Ericiasphaera rigida -- China, Scandanavia, Austraia, India

Abundant -- probably vegitative cysts of unicellular phytoplankton or reproductive cysts of unicellular phytoplankton. May include some prasinophyte green algae at least in the latest Proterozoic and Cambrian. Some may be eggcases of metazoans. Acritarch diversity drops off as Ediacaran diversity increases. 31 species of acritarch are recorded from the Doushanto formation of China in cherts and phosphates. Mostly leispherids in to older beds acanthomorphs in the upper beds.

A Neoproterozoic acritarch(?) found in phosphatic clasts in the Biskop's Conglomerate in Norway

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Ernietta

A sack like animal{6} - Pflug has defined a number of questionable genera of Ernietta from Namibia in addition to undoubted Ernietta from the same region. The Ernietta from Sonora appear to predate common Vendian fossils by as much as 50,000,000 years. - Charnwood Forest, Namibia (Nama Group), SW North America, (10z-10ac)(10bh-10bj) Number [21] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Euconodont

Eel-like soft bodied fossils with phosphatic teeth found in the Upper Cambrian. Thought to be precursors of the conodonts and also to be related to chordates and hemichordates.

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Eugeosyncline

A structure identified by 19^th Century geologists consisting of depressions and volcanic areas that form along some continental margins. The Geosyncline consists of a depression called a Miogeosyncline that forms on the edge of a continent and a region to the seaward side known as a Eugeosyncline. The Eugeosyncline includes considerable volcanism as well as plutonic incursions. The Eugeosyncline forms along the continental margin and serves as a source rock for the thick clastic deposits that fill the Miogeosyncline. The geosyncline nomenclature has reportedly fallen into disfavor with geologists in recent years.

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Eurokyotes

refer to Bacteria

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Evmiaksia

White Sea Number [71] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Facultative anaerobe

An organism capable of growing either Aerobically or Anaerobically. Many Bacteria will use Oxygen in their metabolism if it is available, but do not require Oxygen for growth.

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Fallotopsis

A very early Olenellid trilobite. The earliest trilobite found in Western North America and in Scandanavia. Thorax a bit less spiny than most olenellids with a larger pygidium. However the typical overdeveloped third thoric segment spines of the olenellids are present.{3}.

On the basis of cracking in the shell material and analysis of juvenile forms, Geyer believes that Fallotapsis is a ancestor of Redlichids and Ptycoparoids whereas Olenellids and Holmiids seem to share some common ancestor with Fallotapsis. Geyer maintains that the "metaparian suture" reported in Fallotapsis is a result of stress cracking of the shell after death and not a natural division in the shell. He also feels that the cranidium observed in larger specimens is due to cracking and compaction. However, the circumocular suture is real.

The protaspid form is known and is thought to have been bethnic.

Fallotopsid trilobites include Fallotapsis, Choubertella, and Daguinapsis.

Fallotapsis is known from the Inyo-White Mountains region of California-Nevada, from Sweden, and from Morocco.

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Fasciculus

A form from the Middle Cambrian Burgress Shale of British Columbia that is thought possibly to be a primitive Cubozoan (Ctenophore).

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Fenland Terrane

Precambrian volcanics (616Ma) found subsurface to the NorthEast of the Charnwood Terrane in England. The tuffs are exposed in a few boreholes and are thought to be chemically and petrographically distinct from beds of similar age in the Charnwood Terrane.

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Fig Tree Series

A sequence of sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks in Southern Africa. It is part of the Swaziland Group. The Fig Tree overlies the 3500 million year old Onverwacht Series. Cherts within the Fig Tree Sequence contain preserved bacterial cells and filaments. It underlies near shore sandstones.

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Finnmark

A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. The area is in Norway near the Tanafjorden area. A late proterozoic glacial unconformity is known at Bigganjargga where glacial scouring is present in the Veinesbotn Formation. The glacially scoured unconformity is at the junction of two sandstones. Other exposures of the unconformity occur at Handelsnes, Skjåholmen and Vieranjarga as well as at Reusch. The current interpretation is that there is an unconformity showing signs of glacial scouring on its surface and capped by a tillite.

Fossils are from the Innerelv formation. Specimens are archived at the Russian Academy of Science in Moscow - Beltanella, cyclomedusa, Ediacaria, Hiemalora, Kullingia, Nimbia, Sabellitides(10r)

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Flinders Ranges

A range of hills in South Australia where Cambrian and late precambrian rocks are well exposed. The Lower Cambrian sequence consists of the Ajax Limestone, Wilkawillina Limestone, Oraparinna Shale, capped by the Middle Cambrian Wirrealpa Limestone.

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Fortiforceps folisa

Another problemetic Lower Cambrian arthropod with forward appendages somewhat resembling the anamalocarid(?) Parapeyotia hunnanensis. They have only 5 segments and appear possibly to be grasping organs bringing the spines of all segments together to grasp objects.

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Fortune Head, Newfoundland

A cape in SouthEastern Newfoundland where the PreCambrian-Lower Cambrian boundary is exposed. The GSSP for The Lower Cambrian-PreCambrian boundary is at the first appearance of the trace fossil Trichphycus pedum in the Chapel Island formation at Fortune Head, Newfoundland. The beds at fortune head expose 410 meters of sediment in a series of low cliffs dipping at 15 degrees to the Northwest. The exposure was described by Narbonne et al in 1988

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Frond like

Ediacaran animals(?) the interior structure has been analyzed by Grazhdankin and is said to be complex. Details are not available and may not be fully published.

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Fucoids

Older name for Palaeophycus

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Fungi

Plantlike entities without chlorophyll. Often Colonial. Four (or more) phyla/divisions.

• Chytridiomycota - chytrids

• Zygomycota - bread molds

• Ascomycota - yeasts and sac fungi

• Basidiomycota - club fungi

Fossil fungi are fairly common from the Devonian on. Prior to the Devonian the record is spotty. Chitrid-like fossils are known from Vendian times and possible fungi are known from the Pre-Cambrian Bitter Springs Formation of Australia. Fungal fossils are microscopic and often difficult to identify or to distinguish from other groups such as the empty sheaths of filimentous cyanobacteria.

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Gehlingia

Gehlingia dibrachida is a Vendian animal from the Rawnsley Quartzite in the Ediacara Hills of South Australia. It is a bilaterally symmetric organism consisting of a u shaped tube with a frond on each side of numerous bifurcated blades. The creature exceeds 8cm in length and 3 in width.{14}

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Genes

• On October 19, 2000, a team of biologists and a geologist announced the revival of 250 million-year-old bacteria, strengthening that case that bacterial spores can be immortal

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Genesis

The first book of the Christian, Jewish and Islamic Bible. There are two distinct, similar stories of Creation -- One in Genesis: Chapter 1 and a second in the first paragraph of chapter 2. Genesis states that the Earth was created in seven days:

• Day 1, Creation of the universe and of day and night

• Day 2. Creation of the stars ("firmament")

• Day 3. Creation of the seas, dry land, plants

• Day 4. Creation of Stars, Sun, Moon

• Day 5. Creation of water animals, birds, sea monsters, etc.

• Day 6. Creation of land animals and man

• Day 7. Day of rest

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Genetic Interchange

A phenomenon wherein genetic material is passed from one form to another. Antibiotic resistance seems to be passed between bacterial by lateral genetic Interchange. It is hypothesized that many one celled creatures have at times exchanged genetic material thus accounting for apparent tangling of strains among the prokaryotes, Eukaryotes and Archaea.

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Geology of the formations

This section is a set of pointers to modern regions where fossil bearing Pre-Cambrian and Lower Cambrian rocks are found. In some cases the discussions of the specific areas may describe groups of formations, and details of individual formations, beds, and even specific outcrops. All depends on what I've been able to dig out of the literature.

• Alice Springs, Central Australia Late Pre-Cambrian

• Anti-Atlas Mountains, Morocco Late Pre-Cambrian

• Brazil?, Late Pre-Cambrian

• Charnwood Forest, England Late Pre-Cambrian

• Chenjiang, China

• Central India

• Ediacara Hills, Flinders Ranges, South Australia Late Pre-Cambrian

• Finnmark, Norway Late Pre-Cambrian

• Namibia, Late Pre-Cambrian

• Mistaken Cape, Newfoundland, Canada Late Pre-Cambrian

• North China Late Pre-Cambrian

• NW Canada Late Pre-Cambrian

• Olenek Late Pre-Cambrian

• Oman, Late Pre-Cambrian

• Podolia Late Pre-Cambrian

• Rocky Mountains Late Pre-Cambrian through Triassic

• South China, Late Pre-Cambrian

• SW North America. Late Pre-Cambrian through Triassic

• Ural Mountains, Russia Late Pre-Cambrian

• White Sea, Russia Late Pre-Cambrian

  Return to Main Topics

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Geosyncline

A structure identified by 19^th Century geologists consisting of depressions and volcanic areas that form along some continental margins. The Geosyncline consists of a depression called a Miogeosyncline that forms on the edge of a continent and a region to the seaward side known as a Eugeosyncline. The Eugeosyncline includes considerable volcanism as well as plutonic incursions. The Eugeosyncline forms along the continental margin and serves as a source rock for the thick clastic deposits that fill the Miogeosyncline. The geosyncline nomenclature has reportedly fallen into disfavor with geologists in recent years.

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Glaessnerina

A large, up to 90 cm, frond like, preCambrian animal proposed as a possible sea pen (Cnidarian)

Ediacara, North China, Newfoundland, Olenek Number [4] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

http://www.toyen.uio.no/palmus/galleri/montre/english/x493.htm

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Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)

A specific rock unit and bed defined for bad or good to be the universal reference for a specific geological time reference. The GSSP for The Lower Cambrian-PreCambrian boundary is at the first appearance of the trace fossil Trichphycus pedum in the Chapel Island formation at Fortune Head, Newfoundland.

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Gloeodiniopsis

A Cyanobactera fossil similar to Chroococcus. Found in the Doushantuo shales of China and Bitter Springs lake playa carbonates in Australia.

• Gloeodiniopsis lamellosa -- Bitter Springs, Australia

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Gog Group

Lower Cambrian quartzites found above the late Proterozoic Windemere Group in a large area of Eastern and Northern British Columbia and Alberta. Fossils of the trilobite Olenellus are found in the Peyto Member near Lake Louise. Other, mostly trace fossils, include Cruziana, Berguaeria, Skolithos, Didymaulichnus, Rusophycus, Gordia, Planolites, Chondrites, Phycodes, Teichinchnus, Zoophycus .

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Gogia

A Lower Cambrian Eocrinoid/Cystoid. There is no stem although the lower part of the calyx serves the function of a stem. The upper calyx is spherical isth a number -- as many as a dozen -- of thin arms. Gogia seems to have been the basal cystoids with three different cystid lineages apparently derived from three different species of Gogia. Known from the Lower Cambrian of California and various Middle Cambrian beds. The arms are biserial. The food groove was covered by retractable plates.

• Gogia Spirilis -- Utah (Middle Cambrian)

• Gogia longidactylus -- Nevada (Chisolm Shale - Glossopleura zone)

• Gogia sp -- California, Latham Shale (Lower Cambrian)

• G palmeri

• Gogia radiata Sprinkle 1973 -- British Columbia Burgess Shale

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Gordia

A Lower Cambrian trace fossil found in the Lake Louise/Kicking Horse Pass area of British Columbia/Alberta. Meandering burrows. Also known from Bhutan. The Nama region of Southwest Africa, Gordia is also found in upper Cambrian and Ordovician sediments in Newfoundland

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Grand Canyon (of the Colorado)

A deep canyon carved through the flat sediments of the Colorado Plateau of the United States by the Colorado River. In Arizona and Nevada, the bottom of the sediment sequence is exposed at a depth of roughly 1800 meters below the rim. The bottommost sediments of the conformal sequence are time transgressive sandstones and shales of the Tapeats and Bright Angel Formations that are Lower Cambrian in the West and Middle Cambrian further east. In the deepest part of the Canyon a sequence of non-conformal neoproterozoic beds is exposed consisting of the Zoroaster Granite, Vishni Schist, Dox Sandstone, Shinumu Quartzite, Hakstai Shale, Bass Limestone. Typical Lower and Mid Cambrian faunas are known from the Mid-Cambrian beds. Protists and possible jellyfish are known from the older beds.

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Graptolites

A phyllum of primitive animals with thecae on stalks. In general, graptolites did not become common until the Upper Cambrian/Ordovician where they are very common. A possible graptolite -- chauograptus -- is known from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale.

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Grazhdankin, Dimitri

A Russsian Paleontologist who has investigated the internal structure of Ediacaran animals. In 1997 he was with the Paleotological Institute of the Russian Academy of Science in Moscow.

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Greenland

A large Island Northeast of North America. Originally attached to northern North America, the Island later detached and swung into its current position. Greenland is largely covered by permanent glaciers, but very important Lower Cambrian deposits are found in the unglaciated Sirus Passet region in the Northwest. Other Lower Cambrian sediments with a distinctively North American character occur in North Greenland The oldest known possibly organic material comes from metasediments at Akilia/Itasq in the SouthWest.

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Greenstone belts

Very old slightly metamorphised shallow crustal rocks. They are contrasted with deeper, more metmorphised anorthosites.

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Grypania

A spirally coiled trace fossil with as many as two dozen more or less parallel coils. The ribbon itself is perhaps half a millimeter wide and the coils are one to two Centimeters in diameter. Found in rocks from 2100Ma to 1300Ma, Grypania is thought to be possible a large celled Eukaryotic bacteria Central India -- Rohtas Formation

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Gyrolithes:

A Lowest Cambrian trace fossil found in the Phycodes pedum zone in the Chapel Island Formation in Newfoundland. A randomly meandering trace on the bedding surface.

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Gunflint Chert

A formation found in Ontario, Canada near lake Michigan. It is about dated about 1900years M.A. and contains coccoid cells resembling living Green Algae. One locality is at Kakabeka Waterfall.

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Habelia

An uncommon arthropod of unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC. Known specimens range from 8 to 25mm. The animal has a large rounded head shield (A quarter sphere) with one pair of antennae or uniramous appendages and two pairs of biramous gills and walking legs on the head. There are no eyes. There is a narrow doublure at the rear of the cephalon that may have provided additional support to the structure. The body consists of 12 articulated tapering legged segments with no telson and a long posterior spine with a joint about two thirds of the way back. There is no evidence that the spine could move. There is some skepticism that the spine is truly jointed as no one can envision what purpose a joint would serve. The body segments appear to be overlapped and articulating. It appears that the front 6 body segments have gills as well as walking legs. There are blunt spines on the end of each walking leg. The head and body are covered with small tubercles. Odd zigzag trackways from the Grand Canyon are thought possibly to have been made by Habelia or a similar animal. Habelia appears to be related to another Burgess form - Thelxiope.

Habelia was redescribed by Whittington in 1981

• Habelia optata Walcott 1912

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Hadimopanella Association

A Cambrian fossil assemblage found in Spain. The youngest of the five associations identified by Fernandez-Remolar in 1999.

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Hagenetta

Found in conjunction with Pternidium in the Kuibis Quartzite of Namibia - Namibia Number [54] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Haikouella

An early Cambrian vertebrate from Chenjiang, China. Haikouella is one of several animals with gills, vertebrate musculature, and possible primitive fins dated at about 530 million years of age. It lacks bones and jaws. More definite fish include Haikouichthys and Myllokummingia. Suspected Hemichordates (more primitive chordates) are also known from these deposits as well as from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Other than possible fish scales/plates from the Upper Cambrian of Wyoming, these Chinese fish are the only known pre-Ordovician vertebrates.{23} Haikouella is known from 305 specimens mostly from a single bed in the Maotianshan shale of Yunnan province. The animal is 20-30mm (4cm max) in length and has a head, gills, brain, notochord, well developed musculature, heart and circulatory system. It has a bent caudal projection of the notochord that might be a primitive tail fin. It might have a pair of lateral eyes. Very small (0.1mm) structures that are probably pharyngeal teeth are present in the body cavity. A few specimens display dorsal and ventral fins.{24}

• Haikouella lanceolata Chen, Huang, Lii

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Haikouichthys

A primitive fishlike animal from the Lower Cambrian Chenjiang shales of China. For whatever it is worth, cladistic analysis indicates that the animal is probably a primitive agnathid fish most closely related to the Lampreys. It is about 25cm(2.5 surely) long and is narrower than Myllokummingia which comes from the same beds. The holotype was found in the Yuansshan member of the Qiongzhusi Formation in the Eoredlichia Zone near Haikou at Ercaicun, Kunming City, Yunnan, China. The animal has a distinct head and trunk. The head has at least six and perhaps nine probable gills. There are a number of segments (myomeres) with rear directed Vs in the trunk. There is probably a notochord although only a short segment is preserved in the single known specimen. The tail end of the animal is apparently missing. There is a prominent dorsal fin with fin radials. The fin radials seem to angle "forward" toward the end thought on the basis of internal structures to be the head. This happens with a few modern fish but is an uncommon arrangement. There is a ventral fin fold. There are 13 circular structures along the bottom that may be gonads, slime organs, or something else entirely. There is no sign of mineralization of the skeletal elements.

• Haikouichthys ercaicunensis Luo, Hu & Shu

http://www.natureasia.com/get.pl5/hottopics/991104shu/hottopics991104a.en.shtml

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Halichondrites

A Lower Cambrian Sponge

• Halichondrites confusus Dawson, 1889 - Maotianshan Shale, China

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Halkieriids

Slug like Lower Cambrian animals covered with sclerites and having large, brachiopod like, shells at both ends. Sclerites are known from various places. Complete specimens are known from the Sirius Passat fauna of Peary Land in Northern Greenland. Conway Morris has proposed that halkieriids may be precursors of both Wiwaxia and of Brachiopods{13} Other workers consider Halkeria to be mollusks. Bergstroem suggests that they are Procoelomates and are ancestors of all the Coelomate phyla.

• Halkeria proboscidea -- Siberia - Lena River

• Halkeria saciformis -- Siberia - Lena Fiver

• Halkeria sp -- Greenland - Sirius Passat

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Hallidaya

Alice Springs Number [65] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Hallucigenia

A small, very peculiar animal of unknown affinity from the Burgess shale near Field, BC. It is also reported informally to be present in the Lower Cambrian of China. The animal consists of a round "head" poorly preserved in all 30 or so known specimens. The head may bear a pair of long sweeping antenna. The unsegmented body has seven (and always exactly seven) pairs of sharp spines embedded in the body wall or attached to basal plates (how did they grow?).. The opposite side (it remains unclear which is the top of the animal) has seven tentacles or tube legs slightly offset forward of the spines on the opposite side. The forward(?) six tube feet have paired claws. The rear(?) of the animal has three small paired tentacles and terminates in a long tube like tentacle. It is possible that Hallucigena is an appendage of a larger animal. Conway Morris feels that Hallucigenia may be a descendent of a form that evolved into the arthropods and may also be related to Anomalocaris{13} Hallucigenia has no known relatives and is regarded as the single known member of an otherwise unknown phylum although lately, Morris has proposed it as a Onchophoran.{1}

• H Parsa Walcott 1911

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/phallu.htm

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Halophiles

Organisms requiring salt for growth They are subdivided into extreme and moderate halophiles. The extreme halophiles are all archaea.

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Hamersley Iron Formation

A 2500Ma iron bed in the Hamersley Range in Western Australia. Biomarkers have been found in slightly older (2700Ma) shales in NorthWest Australia by Brocks et al. The biomarkers -- mostly lipids -- indicate the presence of eukaryotic cells, presumably cyanobacteria. Chemicals found include 2-methylhopanes that are presumable derived from 2-methylbacteriohopanepolyols that are found is large amounts only in cyanobacteria. Steranes derived from sterols are also reported. The specific complex steranes found seem to indicate eukaryotic origin as prokaryotes generate only simple sterols. Since modern sterol synthesis requires free Oxygen, the steranes are taken as evidence that oxygenation of the atmosphere must have been underway as early as 2700Ma.

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Haplophrentis

A Hyolithid from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Length is from 5mm to 3cm. Hyolithids have a conical calcareaous shell, a cover (operculum) and two long curved 'stabilizers' known as 'helens'. Hyolithids were apparently common prey for carnivores in Burgess time. They are found, for example in the stomach of Ottoia. There is one species of Haplophrentis, H Carinatis.

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/phaplo.htm

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Harlaniella

A proterozoic trace fossil found in the Harlaniella podolica zone in the Chapel Island Formation in Newfoundland. A cylindrical horizontal burrow with a continuous twist (counterclockwise in the one sketch I have seen)

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Harlaniella podolica zone

The oldest of three worldwide trace fossil zone identified by Narbonne and Myrow as being present in the Chapel Island Formation at Fortune Head, Newfoundland. The Harlaniella podolica zone lies below the pre-Cambrian/Cambrian boundary and is characterized by simple linear or meandering burrows such as planolites and Gordia as well as irregularly branching burrows of Buthrotrephis and simple subhorizontal burrows such as Harlaniella and Palaeopascichnus. Fossils include Tyrasontaenia (an algae) and Sabellidites a shelly fossil. The zone covers a few million years ending at 544 ma.

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Harlaniella podolica

A fossil and faunal zone found just below the Cambrian-Proterozoic Boundary at Fortune Head, Newfoundland.

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Hazelia

A Lower Cambrian Sponge

• Hazelia palmata Walcott, 1920 - Maotianshan Shale, China

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Hebediscus

A lower cambrian, European-Avalonian pagetoid trilobite. Glabella is plain. Pygidium is unsegmented. looks more like an agnostid or eodiscoid than a pagetoid except for the presence of small free cheeks. H attleboroensis is known from Newfoundland.{3}

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Helioconema

A Filamentous microfossil -- presumably a cyanobacterium -- from the 1,000 year old Bitter Springs Chert in Australia. The filaments consist of a long flat filament coiled in a counterclockwise spiral.

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Helioplacus

An aberrant Lower Cambrian Echinoderm. Helioplacus is covered with typical echinoderm plates, but does not have characteristic echinoderm radial, five fold, symmetry. It has a food grove that spirals up its body. Helioplacus is found in the Poleta Formation of California's White Mountains. The animals are long ovoids that may have lived in burrows. They reached several cm in length and may have been able to extend/contract their bodies. Complete specimens are known only from the Poleta Formation of the White Mountains of California.

• Helioplacus guthi -- Lower Cambrian -- Poleta --

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Heliosphaeridium

A Lower Cambrian acritarch(?) or diatom(?) from the Carapathian region

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Helmetia

An arthropod from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It is noted for the thinness of the cephalon and tail shield shells. However there are well defined forward facing spines at the forward corners and they surely required a rigid support. The six short, wide thoracic segments appear to be articulated. There is a large oval structure projecting beyond the margin of the headshield that might be a Labrum. There is a pair of lateral spines on the headshield. There ate two pairs of lateral spines on the tailshield. There is a terminal spine on the tailshield. "Legs" are poorly known, but they seem to be numerous filaments attached to axial structures. There are no walking legs known. The animal vaguely resembles a very thin policeman's shield with some sort of arthropod underneath. About a dozen specimens are known.

• Helmetia expansa Walcott 1918

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Helminthopsis

Late pre-Cambrian trace fossils from Namibia? that appear to be simple worm burrows. Typically found as short to moderate length cylindrical burrows. The burrows may be numerous and may be curved. They do not appear to be discontinuous segments of the same burrow. They do not branch and rarely intersect. Found in Canada as well as Namibia. Number [65] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Helmnenthoda

A complex feeding trace normally found in deep water but also found in quiet water areas within Newfoundland's Chapel Island Formation. H nereites

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Hemichordates

A phylum of animals also known as Cephalochordates. They resemble vertebrates in having a spinal nerve accompanied by a muscular notochord. They have gills and a head, but minimal brain development and no vertebrae. There are about 25 modern species. They are thought to be ancestral to the Vertebrates. The fossil record is sparse but probably includes both Middle and Lower Cambrian forms. Pikaia and Yunannozoon

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Heterotroph

An organism that obtains carbon from Organic compounds instead of or in addition to Carbon Dioxide.

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Hiemalora(Hemalora?)

A small sack like form up to three cm across with short 1 cm or so radiating lines around the outside of the sack.


Non-copyrighted sketch

Known from NW Canada - Ediacara, Finnmark, NW Canada, Olenek Podolia, White Sea, Number [60] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Holmia

Holmia is a Callaviinid trilobite somewhat resembling Olenellus but without the overdeveloped 3rd thoracic segment and long spines typical of Olenellus. It has 16 segments in the thorax and 3 fused segments in its small pygidium. It is Found in the Lower Cambrian of North America and Northern Europe. It is also reported from Morocco{2}

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Houghtonites

An arthropod from the Burgess shale of British Columbia. Appears to be an alternate name for Mollisonia.

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Hsuaspis

A Lower Cambrian trilobite. Some body parts are found in the Australian Emu Bay Shale.

• Hsuaspis bilobata

  • South Australia - Flinders Ranges

  • New South Wales

  • Antarctica

  • South China

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Hupetina

A lowest Cambrian trilobite found with small shelly fossils below other small shelly fossils in Spain

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Hurdia

An arthropod from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Has thin valves that are generally compressed and distorted. Morris lists it as an Anomalocarid. Mouthparts are known and seem to include a set of buccal teeth as well as the "normal" anamaolocarid teeth. The Hurdia body plan is somewhat different from the other anamalocarids. There are only a few specimens scantily described by Collins in 1992. In particular, the grasping appendages, if any, are unknown.

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Huronian System

A thick sequence of Proterozoic (2500ma-1600ma) igneous and sedimentary rocks found in the area of the Western Great Lakes of North America. Good exposures occur in Western Ontario, Wisconsin and the Northern Peninsula of Michigan. The beds include:

• Gowganda Formation -- conglomerates, tillites, varved mudstones

• Nimikean System -- Banded Iron beds, Gunflint Chert

The sequence lies upon Archean rocks and underlies the Helikian System

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Hydrogen Hypothesis

A hypothesis about the origin of Eukaryotic bacteria set forth by Martin and Miller in Nature in 1998.

Hydrogen Theory

A 1998 proposal by Martin and Mueller that Eukaryotic cells with mitochondria originated from a symbiotic union between an archaeobacteria whose metabolism produced methane from hydrogen and Carbon Dioxide and a bacteria that produced hydrogen (and carbon dioxide) as waste products of some other metabolism.

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Hyolithes

A conical fossil found from one to several cm in length found in Lower and Middle Cambrian beds worldwide. The top of the shell has an operculum. Two curved blades called 'Helens" extend to the sides from near the top of the shell. Despite their being common, little is known about their internals or lifestyle although a phosphatized speciemen from Canada exibits a plain, u-shaped gut. The oldest hyolithids are found with small shelly fossils above cloudina in conjunction with the trilobite Hupetina in Spain. Some paleontologists think Hyolithes might be a mollusk, but they are generally placed in a phylum of their own.

• Hapophrentis carniatas - Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale, Field, BC, Canada

• Hyolithes whiteyii - Lower Cambrian Latham Shale -- San Bernardino Cy, California

Hyolithellus{1}:

A 4 to 5mm slightly curved conical fossil with numerous annulations. A member of the uppermost pre-Cambrian Small Shelly Fauna.

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Hyperthermophiles

Bacteria capable of growth above 90C. Optimal growth temperatures are usually very high but below 90C. Growth has been demonstrated up to 113C in one species.

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Huaiyuanella

A proterozoic wormlike fossil from China. It is found in the Changlingzi, Nanguanling, and Formations. The age of the formations is thought to be about 700 Ma. Thought to be Sabellidites, Paleolina or Annelids.

• Huaiyuanella minuta-- Changlingzi, Nanguanling Formations

• H baiguashanensis -- Jiuliqiao Formation

• H jiuliqiaoensis -- Jiuliqiao Formation

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Hurdia:

An anamalocarid described by Collins that has a second set of buccal ("pharyngeal") teeth. Body has 11 segments with legs (biramous structure) and is covered by a multiple segment Carapace with two sheathed claws on claws on each segment. There is a distinct tail. The named species assigned to Hurdia. H. dentata, H. triangulata and H. victoria

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Hydrocarbons:

Organic material in rocks is generally originally found in the form of a material called Kerogen. Kerogen is a mix of fairly heavy organic molecules. This is "cooked" by temperature and pressure to yield oils or, with higher temperature and pressure, natural gas. Although bacteria were possibly abundant throughout the past 4 thousand million years, oil and gas older than about 550,000,000 years are relatively uncommon. Four reasons are hypothesized:

• There is a scarcity of old rocks

• Many of the older rocks have been subjected to high heat or pressure at some point creating methane that has leaked out and leaving only heavy Carbon residues.

• Rocks that have been subjected to high pressure rarely have interstitial pores that can serve as petroleum reservoirs. The spaces have simply been squeezed out.

• If certain anaerobic bacteria find their way into a hydrocarbon reservoir, they will "eat it" leaving behind only Methane and some unreduced carbon.

Some workers believe that graphite deposits in older rocks may be the remains of hydrocarbon deposits that were metabolized, cooked or pressed to destruction.

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Hypostome

A small plate found under the headshield (Cephalon) of many arthropods -- particularly trilobites. In some cases, it is attached to the cephalon. In others, it is free. The hypostomes are known for many, but by no means all. Trilobites. Hypostomes are thought to be mouth parts. Hypostomata are important in the classification of trilobites. Hypstomes are also found in ither arthropods -- notably ticks and mites where they appear to be formed from highly modified cephalic appendages. It is not clear that the hypostromes in various arthropods did not evolve separately. There is also an organ called a hypostome in hydra that may possibly be related.

http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/hypoterms.htm

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Ibor Group

A vendian or Lower Cambrian rock Sequence found in Central Iberia

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Ichnofossils

Tracks, burrows, tool marks, etc. In addition, there is a possibility that some entities thought to be body fossils are in fact ichnofossils. This is especially true in the Proterozoic where most of the fossils are tenuously related to modern forms at best. Many common types of ichnofossils have been given generic and species names. In a few cases, the animals that cause the ichnofossils are fairly firmly established. Ichnofossil forms that extend back to the Cambrian/Proterozoic include: Cruziana, Skolithos, Didymaulichnus, Rusophycus, Gordia, Planolites, Chondrites, Phycodes, Teichinchnus, Zoophycus, and Oldhamia. Ichnofossils at the Cambrian - Proterozoic boundary are grouped by Seilacher into Upper Vendian -- Skolithos, Neonerites, Bilinichnus; Upper Tommotian -- Phycodes, Bergaureia; and Upper Tommotian -- Cruziana, Diplichnites, Rusphycus, Astropolichnus, and Diplocraterion.

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Ichnology

Study of trace fossils -- burrows, trails, etc. These are quite common in many formations. Unfortunately, they are rarely very distinctive. In a few cases, we know or suspect we know the animals that formed the track/burrow. A few tracks with distinctive patterns or other features are given species names.

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Ichnusia

A medusoids reported from the late pre-Cambrian of Sardinia.

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IDPs

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Imbrication

The laying down of scales or plates in overlapping sheets. e.g. Asphalt roof shingles are usually laid down in an imbricated pattern. Imbrication is a significant feature in echinoid plates (steroms).

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Inaria

Inaria karli is a garlic clove shaped animal with a central stalk and six or seven basal lobes leading upward into a short, hollow, tubular "stem". The basal bulb may be 7 to 8 cm in diameter.{6}{14} - Ediacara Number [99] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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India - Central

Four poorly studied and described localities in Central India (Vindhyan) contain possible Pre-Vendian Fossils including Misraea, Ramapurea, Amjohrea, Grypania (10ae,10f)

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India - Lesser Himalayas

Lesser Himalayas -- An area where Vendian fossils may have been found in the Krol formation in the Naini Tal Syncline -- medusoids (10bk-10bn)

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India - Rajastan

Possible medusoids and Dickinsonia

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India - South India

An area where vendian microfossils have been found in the Bhima and Kaladgi-Badami sequence. medusoids are also reported from the Halkal Shale near Kolkur.(10bo)

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Infracambrian Period

A geological period covering the period from 670 (570?) to 550 Ma when Ediacaran faunas are found worldwide. It is essentially the same as the subsequently accepted Vendian Period

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Infrakingdom

A collection of creatures that is a major subdivision of a Kingdom. The usage of the term is uncommon and relatively modern. Subkingdoms are presumed to contain the ancestors of several phyla, but not to be as basic a subdivision of life as a kingdom. The term seems to have been invented to forstall an explosion in the number of Kingdoms as more becomes known about primitive creatures. For example, the kingdom Metazoa (multicelled animals) may have and infrakingdom Procoeloma which is an infrakingdom because it contains the root animals from which a number of phyla originated.

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Infrakrol Formation

Fossiliferous cherts from Subhimalayan India (Tiwara and Knoll 1995)

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Ingta Formation

The oldest proterozoic formation in the mountains of NorthWest Canada. The Ingta Formation underlies the Backbone Ranges Formation. The rocks are clastics deposited in marine shelf to near shore continental environments. Some ichnofossils are found in the marine beds.

• Mackenzie Mountains

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Inkrylovia

[24] -- An Ediacaran form proposed by McMenamin as a metacellular form with unipolar growth and three cell groups. - NW Canada White Sea, Number [24] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Insects

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Insolicorypha

A polychaete worm of unknown affintiy from the Middle Cambrian of British Columbia. One specimen is known. The head(?) is split into two stubs each of which may have carried an eye or other sensory organ. The known specimen has 19 segments on segments 3-19 have a pair of bilobed parapods. One of the lobes has 30-40 setae exposed in a fan with three cirri projecting near the base. The second branch is much smaller and has about 10 setae. It is thought that the animal may have been free swimming.

• P Psygma Morris 1979

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Interstellar dust clouds

Collections of fine material found in space. Spectroscopic analysis has identified organic molecules in these clouds including formaldehyde (H2CO), Hydrogen Cyanide(HCN), Acetaldehyde (C3H4O), and other organic compounds up to 11 atoms. The amino acid Glycine has possibly been found as well.

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Iran - Central

A modern region where Late PreCambrian fossils may have been found. The fossils consist of a Charnia like fossil and the medusoids Perimedusites.(10w)

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Iron Spherules

A working title for small connected spheres of platy goethite and hematite crystals 1 to 10 um in diameter. They are found within the 3.4Ga Towers Formation of the Warrawoona Group in NorthWest Australia. The spherules are found in a silica/carbonate matrix. Pyrite and other iron minerals are present, but the spherules appear to contain only iron and Oxygen. It is theorized that they might be of organic origin. It has been suggested that they may be analogous to suspected microfossils in the meteorite ALH8001

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Irridinitus

Small disk like fossils with concentric circular structures. Reported from the Mierre Group near Jasper, Alberta in the Rocky Mountains. Among the oldest Ediacaran animals{6} , Rocky Mountains, White Sea Number [64] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Isoxys

A bivalved (phyllopod?) crustacean often found in Cambrian faunas worldwide. It is present in the Burgess Shale of British Columbia, Emu Bay shale of Australia, the Maotsianshan Shale in Chinam the Middle Cambrian of Utah, and many other places. It has large stalked eyes which are not preserved in the Burgess shale. It is thought that Isoxys might have been an active swimmer and that the Burgess specimens might represent the shells of dead or moulted animals. 1 to 3 cm in length. There are irreuglar indentations in the shells that are possibly due to compression. Simonetta claims to have identified appendages in one specimen, but other authors have been unable to confirm it. The shells have a small, sharp spine on each side at the end of the hinge. A second species with longer spines was erected by Simonetta and Delle Cave.

• I acutangulus Walcott 1908 \ Burgess Shale, BC

• I longissimus Simonetta and Delle Cave 1975 \ Burgess Shale, BC

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Isua

A location in West Greenland where tiny specs of graphitic carbon in apatite crystals have isotope mixtures that are consistent with organic origin. It is possible, but not certain, that these represent the remains of prokaryotic bacteria or their ancestors. The rocks are the oldest crustal rocks known on Earth. It is not clear that the graphitic specks represent cellular life. They could, for example represent small inclusions of primadorial organic soup from which life would later emerge(18)

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Itsaq Gneiss

A 3850Ma year old rock found on Akilia Island off Greenland. C12/C13 ratios in the carbon in the gneiss appear to indicate organic origin.

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Ivesia

Charnwood Forest, Newfoundland Number [79] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Jensen S

A paleontologist who has published on trace fossils of the Mickwitzia Sandstone from Sweden and other Cambrian and Precambrian faunae.

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Jixian

A farm town East of Beijing, China where balloon shaped eukaryotic cells similar to Chuaria are found in 1800Ma old sediments The 200um cells are scattered along the bedding surfaces and are thought to have be photosynthesizing bacteria of some sort.

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Jinxianaella

A Vendian medusoid from North China - Apparently described only in Chinese.(10i-k) North China

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Jixiella

North China Number [100] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Judomia

A Callaviinid trilobite with a somewhat exaggerated rearmost lobe on the glabella. J Dzevanovskii is known from the Lower Cambrian of Siberia, but a similar form is reported from the Nevadia-Nevadella zones of the Western US.

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Kabekia

A microbe from the 2100Ma Gunflint Chert. It consists of a small spheroid a couple of um in diameter attached to a long stem about 10 um in length capped by an eight rayed parasol like structure. The size of the parasol seems to vary over time becoming larger just before spores are released

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Kaisalia

White Sea Number [44] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Kap Toedsson Formation

A lower Cambrian rock formation from Northern Greenland containing Ekwipagetia marginata, Serrodiscus and Calodiscus

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Kerygmachela

A problematic 17cm Cambrian arthropod(?) K. kierkegaardi from the Sirius Passet region of Greenland. Possibly an anamalocarid.

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Kerogen

A waxy solid mixture of organic compounds often found in sedimentary rocks. It is the portion that is insoluble in HCl, HF, bases, and organic solvents. The portion of Kerogen that liquifies between 105C and 135C typically is the target of crude oil drilling. Kerogen is common in Post Cambrian rocks and is found in some deposits back to 3500Ma. It is believed that essentially all Kerogen is organically derived. C12/C13 ratio tests support this theory. As an aside, hydrogen rich Kerogens are associated with oil whereas hydrogen poor Kerogens are associated with natural gas. Hydrogen rich Kerogens are typically associated with anoxic basin deposits and coals. Hydrogen depleted Kerogens are associated with near shore shallow water depositational environments.

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Khatyspytia

Olenek Number [5] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Khazakhia

A Cambrian continent. A block of poorly known sediments including the Maly Karatau region of Eastern Kazakhstan. The sediments contain a continuous sequence from the Pre-Cambrian to through the Ordovician. Faunas show relationships to those of "northern Perigodwana" ( I did not invent this terminology and I don't understand it),Western China, Siberia and the Atray-Sayan Fold Belt. Return to Early Cambrian Geography

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Kimberella

A Pre-Cambrian Animal. It was originally thought to be a jellyfish, and later a cubozoan ("box jelly"). Well preserved material looks more like a primitive mollusk{6} - There is one species Kimberella quadrata Fedonkin & Waggoner(20). Kimberlla is a good sized animal, 3 to 9 cm in the longest dimension. There is a deep, somewhat irregular depression and a patterned fringe. It has been described as resembling a female square dancer after the barn collapsed. It's current interpretation is a bilaterally symmetric benthic animal with a univalve, non-mineralized, shell. It is thought to be possibly and ancestor of the mollusks. Ediacara, White Sea, Siberia?, North India? Number [62] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Kingdom

The highest division of living creatures. There are six identified Kingdoms -- two of simple creatures with simple Prokaryote cells and 4 with more complex Eukaryotic cells. The Prokaryotic kingdoms are Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. The four Eukaryotic celled kingdoms are Protists, Plants, Fungi, and Metazoa. Some, by no means all, paleontologists are arguing for a 5th Eukaryotic kingdom, the Vendbiota, including some, but not all Ediacaran forms. The next division below kingdom is the Phylum. There are substantial disagreements about how many Phyla there are more than a few disagreements about what kingdom some Phyla belong to. Since the list of Phyla isn't overwhelming, I have provided a combined list of Phyla as well as organizing them by Kingdom.

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Andrew H. Knoll

Late proterozoic microfossils -- Doushantuo formation plus late proterozoic shales/cherts of Northern Australia

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Kootenia

A trilobite generally associated with the Middle Cambrian. Found in the Upper Lower Cambrian Henson Gletscher formation of Northern Greenland

• Kootenia Walcott

A corynexochid trilobite of the family dorypygidae found in North America. Similar to Dorypyge but with a deep furrow at the rear of the glabella and better defined pygidial border. 7 thoracic segments. 4 to seven pairs of spines on the pygidium margin which vary in size and number from individual to individual. Best known from the Middle and perhaps Upper Cambrian of Western North America, but also known from the Lower Cambrian Parker Slate, kelly quarry Swanton, VT{4}

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Kuibisia

Namibia Number [23] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Kullingia

Alice Springs, Finnmark, NW Canada, Olenek, Urals, Number [43] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Kunmingella

A bivalved arthropod from the early Cambrian Chenjiang fauna of China. It is a Bradoriid and was originally thought to be an ostracod. Preserved appendages indicate that it is not an ostracod, crustacean or phosphatocopid.

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Lake Baikal

A modern region where possible Vendian fossils are found. Baikalina. (10af-10ah)

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Laggania

An anamalocarid from the Middle Cambrian Burgess shale of British Columbia. Originally collected by Walcott but not described as he thought it to be a poorly preserved sponge or some such. Collins placed it in Phyllum Anomalocarididae, Class Dinocardia, Order Radiodonta, . The animal associated with the mouthparts Peyotia nathorsti? May have gills on the lateral lobes. Hou et. Al maintains that is has transverse sets of lanceolate scales on it's back. Collins believes that the specimen in question USNM 274142 is a ventral view and that the "scales" are a flexible rod supporting the lateral lobes. This rod is characterised as internal, linear, nodular, extending across the body line and ending in clublike ends. The question has been raised if this structure would be consistent with growth by moulting. Has transverse mineralized strips. 14 body segments. "metametic" trunk (whatever that is). No legs (Uniramous appendages). Flaps on head that may just be the forwardmost lobe(s). Hard parts limited to the mouth and forward grasping appendages (the mineralized strips aren't hard parts?). Head is broad and parabolic. Eyes are set well back and are on stalks. Has a blunt posterior without the fantail of Anomalocaris. Has a pair of "great claws" with spines that seem to be modified from the same components that comprise the Anomalocarid appendages. Collins believes the head, eye positions, body, and tail are sufficiently different from Anomalocaris to require a different genus.

• L cambria (Collins). (Anomalocaris nathorsti Whittington and Briggs. 1985; Peyotia nathorsti Chen, Ramsksld, Zhou 1994) -- BC, Yunnan?.

• L Canadiensis (Collins)?(Anomalocaris Canadiensis)

www.paleoindustrial.com/id25.htm

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Lakhanda Formation

A Siberian formation dated from 900-1000Ma. Algae filaments (?) have been found Paleovaucheria, Archeoclada.

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Laurentia

A Cambrian continent. Proto North America: Laurentia consists of most of the current United States, Canada and Northwest Mexico minus Baja Califofnia and coastal California, Northern California, NorthWest Nevada, and much of Alaska. Also minus the region East of the Appalachians. It appears also to have included Western Newfoundland, The arctic islands of Canada, Greenland, Scotland, Svalbard, parts of Scandinavia parts of Morocco, and some rocks in Argentina. One source says that northern scandinavian rocks were part of Baltica rather than Laurentia. It is unclear whether they know more than I do, or less. During the Late PreCambrian and Early PreCambrian the shoreline stretched North through Western Sonora, Western Arizona, Up the Utah Nevada Border up to Western Alberta. On the East Coast, the shoreline ran down a line roughly from Lake Champlain and South West between the Eastern ridges of the Appalachians. As time passed the seas slowly moved up onto the continent eventually flooding the entire continent tens of millions of years later during the Ordovician. In modern North America Proto-North American Late PreCambrian and Cambrian fossils are found in Western Newfoundland, Vermont, Quebec, Vermont, Pennsylvania and down the ridge of the Appalachians into Alabama and Georgia. Another belt of sediments from that age stretches from North West Sonora up through the Mojave, Western Grand Canyon, through Nevada, and extreme Western Utah, through Washington, Montana, British Columbia, Western Alberta and the Yukon Territory. A few small outcrops are also found in West and Central Texas, in the Ozarks of Missouri, and in the Western Great Lakes. There is some overlap of species between Siberia and Laurentia, and it is possible that the continents were close, or connected, or that some Siberian rocks were part of Laurentia. Early Cambrian Geography

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Leanchoilia

An arthropod on unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC. The animal has a head shield and 11 segments. In back of the 5^th segement, the segments become fanned out at increasing angles. The front of the eyeless head has a pair of unusual four segmented appendages curving forward through 90 degrees with long whiplike extensions on each of the final three segments. Leanchoilia has two pairs of gills and legs on the headshield and additional pairs of gills and legs on each body segment. There is a short spiny triangular tail segment that may have been movable vertically but is blocked from horizontal motion. There are fringing spines on the tail and legs.{1}

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/pleancho.htm

• Leanchoilia Superlata Walcott 1912

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Lecythioscopa

A possible primitive priapulid worm from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Lecythioscopa was apparently described by Walcott as Canadia simplex. (But Canadia is a polychaete(bristle) worm \ it seems an odd assignment for a priapulid). The only information I have refers to a continuous flexible sheath and slender straight spines on the head. The animal may have been redescribed by Conway Morris in 1977

• Canadia simplex -Walcott (1931) \ M Cambrian Burgess Shale

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Leiosphaeridia

A Lower Cambrian acritarch(?) or diatom(?) from the Carapathian region

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Leiospheres

• Probably remains of eukaryotes -- very likely of algae. First appear about 2400Ma{15}. Technically the term Leosphaera is a genus name applying to a spherical or ovoid, acid insoluble, microfossil with smooth or slightly ornamented surface, but the term 'Leiospheres' seems to apply to the whole collection of similar spherical microfossils. The genus was divided into Leiosphaeridia and Tasmanites. Tasmanites was defined by Newton in 1875. Leiosphaeridia was proposed by Eisenack in 1958 and slightly modified in 1963 by Downie and Sarjeant when Eisenack's 1938 Genus Leosphaera was recognized as a species of Tasmanites. Leiospheres have thin cell walls without tubes, but some species have (usually) small apertures possibly indicating that they are cysts. Leiospheres are known up thorough the Mesozoic and probably beyond. Some taxa within the older Leiospheres are:

• Kildinella spherical fossils from 15 to 70 mm (I suspect this is a typo in the source material and that the real units are Micrometers or some other small unit](21). They are smooth or Shagreen(?) with clearly delimited folds probably caused by post-mortem compression. Found in the pre-Cambrian of Russia

• Leiopsophosphaera Naumova is similar to Kildinella, but has a pitted surface. Is known from the paleozoic, but it is not clear how far back.

• Uniporatais similar to the other genera, but has an ornamented surface and large aperture. It is known from the paleozoic, but it is not clear how far back.

• Other taxa have been defined that may extend into the Cambrian or before.

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Lenargyrion

A small disk like fossil not much more than a mm across consisting of a rim and about a dozen small conical teeth or spines on the top surface. A member of the uppermost pre-Cambrian Small Shelly Fauna.{1}

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Leptomitus

A Lower Cambrian Sponge. A narrow, very long, cylindrical sponge with numerous long parallel vertical spicules running the length of the animal

• Leptomitus zitteli (Walcott, 1886) - Maotianshan Shale, China, Parker Slate, VT LI> Leptomitus lineatus (Walcott) - Burgess Shale, BC

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Leptomitella

A Lower Cambrian Sponge

• Leptomitella metta (Rigby, 1983) - Maotianshan Shale, China

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Liaonanella

A Vendian medusoid from North China - Apparently described only in Chinese.(10i-k) North China

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Liaononingia

North China Number [58] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Lie-de-vin Formation

A latest proterozoic formation from the Anti-Atlas Mountains of Morocco. The formation consists of shallow water dolostones and shales. It is overlain by fossiliferous Lower Cambrian limestones of the Amouslek Formation.

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Limniphacos

A Lower Cambrian trilobite(?) from Northern Greenland

• Limniphacos perspicullum

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Lipalian Interval

A time period between the Early Cambrian and late PreCambrian proposed in the early 20^th Century by C.D. Walcott to account for the lack of fossils of ancestors to Early Cambrian life. Walcott hypothesized that there was a period just prior to the Cambrian where little or no deposition had taken place. It is now well established that there is no such interval and numerous rock sequences (including Walcott's own Waucoban Section) represent continuous deposition through the time of the proposed Lipalian Interval.

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Lipid Linking

Bacteria are classified to some extent by the chemistry of compounds called lipids in the cell walls. Lipids may be ether linked, diether linked or ester linked. The hypothesis is that Eukaryotes are ester linked whereas Archaea are ether or diether linked. Ether linked lipids are better able to tolerate high temperatures. However, it is reported that some Eukaryotes do have ether bonded lipids and some Archea have ester bonded lipids.

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Limestones

Rocks composed largely or entirely of the very common mineral Calcium Carbonate. The Calcium Carbonate can be either or organic origin (e.g. Shells); can be inorganicly deposited, or can be a mix of the two. There are two crystal forms -- calcite and aragonite. Inorganic Calcium Carbonate is almost always found as Calcite. Organic material may be either. Some shells are calcite in some regions and aragonite in others. It is common for the Calcium atom to be replaced with Magnesium either during or after depositation forming the mineral Dolomite. Calcium Carbonate is insoluble in neutral water, but is soluble in acidic solutions including water with dissolved Carbon Dioxide. Carbon Dioxide solutions become less stable with increasing temperature. As a result, Calcium Carbonate held in solution by CO2 in cold waters tends to precipitate spontaneously in warmer waters.

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Lithospheric Origin of Life

A theory that life originated within the upper layers of the Earth's rocks rather than in the oceans. This is largely a result of the late 20^th Century discovery that bacteria can exist and even thrive in hot hydrothermal environments within the upper crust.

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Little Danzig Cove Brook, Nfld

A locality in SouthEast Newfoundland where the Late PreCambrian Random Sandstone and the Early Cambrian Brigus Formation are exposed.

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Lophophore

A feeding structure found in several phyla including Brachiopods, Phoronids, and Ectoprocts (Bryozoa). The lophophore is a ring, U shaped or coiled set of hollow tentacles that surround the mouth and never include the anus. The tentacles have cilia that sweep water toward the mouth.

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Lomosovis

Podolia Number [32] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Lorenzinites

Ediacara Number [66] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Lutetium-Halfnium Dating

A technique for dating rocks based on the decay of Lutetium 176 to Halfnium 176. The half life of the reaction is about 37 Billion (US) years. In 2001, Scherer calibrated Lt-Hf dates against U-Pb in the same samples and was able to determine that previous estimates of Lt-Hf dates were probably low by about 4%

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Lugnas, Sweden

Lower Cambrian beds. Fossils Trilobites - Wannerias, Ichnofossils - Gyrolithes, Scotolithes, Rusophycus, Gravspar, Protolyellia, Spatanogopsis

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Luxella

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Mackenzia

A probable coelenterate (Sea Anemone) from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. The baglike animal Mackenzia costalis grew to at least 15cm. Morris describes it as living with the base partly embedded in sediment and with a "hold fast" constructed from hard materials in the surrounding sediment. (It is unclear how much of this is conjecture). Mackenzia was originally described by Walcott as a holuthrian (sea cucumber).

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Magnetic Anamolies

Inconsistencies in magnetic orientation indicating very rapid continental motion in the Cambrian. Reported by Kirschvink, Ribberdan and Evans in Science in 1997. Based on data from Australia, a large portion of the Earth's lithosphere seems to have rotated 90 degrees in 30 million years during the period 535-505Ma. At the same time, Laurentia (North America) moved rapidly from polar to equatorial latitudes. It is proposed that the motions are largely illusory and that the actual mechanism for reorientation was a 90 degree translation of the rotational poles to the equator (What about Angular momentum?) It is asserted that such an exchange can occur in 15 million years. Maps are presented that show how the presumed rotation pole change would account for anamolously high continental motion rates during this timeframe. It is also suggested that major changes would occur in ocean circulation patterns that could account for observed C13 data.

www.gps.caltech.edu/users/jkirschvink/pdfs/iitpw.pdf

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Magnetic Variations

The polarity of the Earth's magnetic field flips periodically. This fact is used in correlation of rock sequences in different areas when the rough sequencing is known. The state can be "Normal" (North matches current North), Inverted or mixed. Investigations in Australia (Amadeus Basin) show that the latest proterozoic polarity had normal polarity whereas the Early Cambrian had mixed polarity

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Majella

A Vendian Algae or medusoid from the Maya River Region of Siberia. (10ca)

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Mallagnostus

The single Lower Cambrian genus of the agnostid trilobite family Condylopygidae. a Condylopygidian agnostid trilobite from the Lower Cambrian Schodack Formation of New York. Originally described as Agnostus desidertrus Walcott, 1890. Characterized by comparatively large, semicircular glabella and pygidium. Other members of the family are Middle Cambrian Atlantic-European genera.{3}

The formal description is "Axis G of pygidium rather short, not expanded at rear. surface smooth. The diagrammed animal is a simple shield with a narrow rim and a single featureless lobe. It is unclear whether it is a cephalon of pygidium or why the animal is classified as a Condylopygidian. The known species is M desideratus Howell 1935 from the Lower Cambrian Schodack Formation of New York.

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Maotianshan shale

Lower Cambrian turbide deposits in the Qiongzhusi Formation near Kunming, Central Yunnan Province, China. Known for their large number of soft bodied fossils including the early chordate Haikouella. One outcrop is near Ercai village where fossils are found in a thin microturbide deposit about 2.5 cm thick with algae in the lower part of the bed and Haikouella in the upper part. The Qionzhusi formation consists of fine grained marine mudstones (Note that several different systems of romanizition of Chinese seem to be in use resulting in the same place getting strikingly different spellings in different articles.

• Algae

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• Yuknessia simplex Walcott, 1919

• Sinocylindrica yunnanensis Chen and Erdtmann, 1991

• Megaspirella houi Chen and Erdtmann, 1991

• 000000; border-left: none; border-right: none; padding: 0

• Cambrorhytium major (Walcott, 1908)

• Porifera

• Leptomitus zitteli (Walcott, 1886)

• Leptomitella metta (Rigby, 1983)

• Paraleptomitella dictyodroma Cehn, Hou and Lu, 1989

• Quadrolaminiella diagonalis Chen, Hou and Li, 1990

• Choia carteri Walcott, 1920

• Crumillospongia frondosa (Walcott, 1919)

• Halichondrites confusus Dawson, 1889

• Hazelia palmata Walcott, 1920

• Saetospongia densa Mehl and Reitner, 1993

• Tabakkawia lineata Walcott, 1920

• Chancelloriida

• unnamed new genus and species

• Cnidaria

• Xianguangia sinica Chen and Erdtmann, 1991

• Ctenophora

• unnamed genus and species

• Priapulida

• Maotianshania cylindrica Sun and Hou, 1987

• Circocosmia jinningensis Hou and Sun, 1988

• Palaeoscolecida

• Palaeoscolex sinensis Sun and Hou, 1987

• Lobopodia

• Microdictyon sinicum Chen, Hou and Lu, 1989

• Hallucigenia sparsa (Walcott, 1911)

• Onychodictyon ferox Hou, Ramsköld and Bergström, 1991

• Cardiodictyon catenudum Hou, Ramsköld and Bergström, 1991

• Luolishania conicruris Hou and Chen, 1989

• Paucipodia inermis Chen, Zhou and Ramsköld, 1995

• ?Ectoprocta

• Dinomischus isolatus Conway Morris, 1977

• Phoronida

• unnamed genus and species

• Brachiopoda

• "Linguedusa orienta Sun and Hou, 1987

• "Linguella" chengjiangensis Jin and Wang, 1993

• "Lingulepis" malongensis Rong

• Heliom

• new genus and species

• Hyolitha Ambrolinevitus? sp. ?

• Annelida

• unnamed genus and species

• Arthropoda

• Yunnanocephalus yunnanensis (Mansuy, 1912)

• Wutingaspis tingi (Kobayashi, 1944)

• Eoredlichia intermedia (Lu, 1941)

• Kuanyangia (Sapushania) granulosa Chang, 1966

• Kuamaia lata Hou, 1987

• Retifacies abnormalis Hou, Chen and Lu, 1989

• Acanthomeridion serratum Hou, Chen and Lu, 1989

• Urokodia aequalis Hou, Chen and Lu, 1989

• Cindarella eucalla Chen, Ramsköld, Edgecombe and Zhou, 1997

• Xandarella spectaculum Hou, Ramsköld and Bergström, 1991

• Sinoburius lunaris Hou, Ramsköld and Bergström, 1991

• tegopeltid genus and species

• Saperion glumaceum Hou, Ramsköld and Bergström, 1991

• Misszhouia longicaudata (Zhang and Hou, 1985)

• Naraoia spinosa (Zhang and Zhou, 1985)

• Fuxianhuia protensa Hou, 1987

• Isoxys auritus (Jiang)

• Isoxys paradoxus (Hou, 1987)

• various bradoriids

• Waptia sp.

• Opabinia sp.

• Alalcomenaeus cambricus Simonetta, 1970

• Jianfengia multisegmentalis Hou, 1987

• Anomalocaris saron Hou, Bergström and Ahlberg, 1995

• Amplectobulua symbrachiaciata Hou, Bergström and Ahlberg, 1995

• Peytoia nathorsti Walcott, 1911

• Hemichordata

• Vetulicola cuneatus Hou, 1987

• Banffia sp.

• Chordata

• Yunnanozoon lividum Hou, Ramsköld and Bergström, 1991

• uncertain affinity

• Facivermis yunnanicus Hou and Chen, 1989

• Eldonia eumorpha (Sun and Hou, 1987)

• Rotadiscus grandis Sun and Hou, 1987 . . . . .

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Maotianshania

A (probably) priapulid worm (probably) from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale of Yunnan. Described by Hou and Sun in 1988

• M. cylindrica - Hou and Sun 1988 \ Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale - Yunnan, China

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Marella

A primitive arthropod common in one bed in the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale near Field, BC. 2cm or less in length, Marella consists of a four spiked triangluar headshield and a body of 22 to 27 segments with a small, button like, telson. The thorax appears to be jointed and to have only limited flexibility. The head has two sets of antennae -- one long and swept back and one shorter and stubbier ending a brush like structure. The headshield is something of an enigma as it does not appear to be strengthened with Calcium or phosphates, but clearly required substantial regidity. There may be one or two projections on the bottom rear of the headshield.

Unlike crustacea, there are no limbs on the head behind the mouth of Marella. Each segment has a pair of Gill and walking appendages on each side, however they are only vaguely like analogous appendages in the trilobites. The legs and gills are largely the same on all segments except for size which is roughly propotional to the segment size. Marella is known only from the Burgess Shale. There is one known species Marella splendens Walcott{1}

Walcott described Marella as a "lace crab" in his original field notes. The animal is extremely common in the bed he first investigated. It is absent from other layers.and is not known from elsewhere. The sizes at Mt Field are bimocally destributed which is interpreted as evidence that two seasonal generations were trapped by a catastrophic event.

• M Splendes Walcott 1912

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Marguilis, Lynn

Leading advocate of the Serial Endosymbiosis Theory that Eukaryotic cells are actually colonies of prokaryotic cells. Published "Symbiosis in Cell Evolution" in 1981. Marguilis also proposes that the original host cell for the colony was an archeobacteria. Margiulis and Sagan proposed in 1983 that mitochondria are descended from bacteria similar to Daptobacter or Bdellovibrio; that chloroplasts are descended from cyanobacteria, whiplike cilia are decended from spochetes. And example of symbiosis between amoebae and bacteria was demonstrated in the laboratory in 1991 by Jeon. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts contain their own genetic material which resembles prokaryotes, but not that of their eukaryotic host. The external origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts is better accepted than is that of cilia and flagellae.

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Marpolia

Bundled filamentous organisms thought to represent cynobacterial colonies.

Marpolia spissa -- Middle Cambrian Wheeler Shale - Utah

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Mars Meteorites

Three rare groups of achondritic (stony) meteorites (16 objects total) with isotope ratios that are said to be consistent with each other and inconsistent with the earth. It should be pointed out however that the isotope ratios do not actually match Mars ratios especially well to the extent that Mars ratios are known. They do differ substantially from Earth isotope ratios and from Lunar ratios to the extent they are known. All the meteorites are igneous rocks. Lherzolitic shergottites (one from Antarctica, 2 from California) are identified by their Deuterium/Hydrogen ratios. The crystals appear to be 154-187 million years old and they appear from cosmic ray analysis to spent 2.5 to 3.6 million years in space. There are also basaltic shergottites some of which appear from the presence of hydrated carbonates and sulfates to have been exposed to liquid water prior to injection into space. One of the shergottites known as ALH84001 is much older than the others -- about 4.5 billion years. In this respect, it resembles a typical meteorite rather than the other shergottites. The other two types of Martian meteorites are Chassignites and Nakhlites. All appear to have been on earth no more than 35,000 years. Together, these objects are called SNC meteorites.

Although common wisdom is that the SNC meteorites are from Mars, the Mars origin theory does have some problems. The isotope ratios are not an especially good match. A widely published graph showing a near perfect match is alleged to be constructed from examples selected to "prove" the hypothesis and to be a poor representation of the real data. For example, the Ar40/Ar36 ratio for one meteorite (1650) almost exactly half way between Earth (300) and Mars (3000). Carbon Dioxide, the predominate gas in the current Mars atmosphere, is unaccountably rare in the trapped gases in the SNC meteorites. The SNC meteorites do not show shock artifacts that would be expected in small objects ejected with enough velocity to escape Mars. The majority of SNC the meteorites are quite young by geologic standards and seem to imply that volcanic activity was present on Mars only a few hundred million years ago. Cosmic ray traces in the meteorites indicate relatively short stays (3 to 35 million years) in space. It is asserted that there are no large young craters on Mars that are candidates as sources for the SNC meteorites (How does one identify a young crater on Mars?).

Possible evidence of life has been hypothesized in three meteorites

• A 1300 million year old meteorite from near Nakhla, Egypt. Small structures that look vaguely like Earth Bacteria. More like bacteria than those in the Alan Hills meteorite.

• A 165 million year old meteorite from Shergotty, India. Still to be analyzed

• A 4500 million year old meteorite found in the Allen Hills of Antarctica (ALH84001). Ejection from Mars seems to have taken place about 16 million years ago. Arrival on Earth was about 13000 years ago. Cracks in the rock appear to have filled with carbonate materials between 4000 and 3600 million years ago. Evidence of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been identified with the levels increasing away from the surface. Other antarctic meteorites do not contain PAHs. Earthly contamination should presumably be highest at the surface. Several minerals in the crack fill are deposited in phases, specifically iron deposited as magnetite, that are claimed to be typical of biodepositation on Earth. There are also small ovoid and tubular structures that might possibly be nanobacteria fossils in carbonate material in crack fills. (investigators McKay, Gibson, Thomas-Keprta, Zare). Micropaleontologist Schopf who described several important terrestrial bacterial assemblages examined ALH84001 and opined that the structures are too small to be Earthly bacteria and don't look especially like lifeforms to him.) The size of the objects is consistent with Earthly "nanobacteria", but the existence of nanobacteria itself is controversial.

Mars Rock

A meteorite found in Antarctica (ALH84001) in the late 1990s that is thought to have originated on mars and may contain organic remains. The mass of the rock is 1.9kg and analysis of the rock shows that it is about 3.6 billion years old; arrived on Earth about 13000 years ago; and spent about 16,000,000 years in space. [As an aside, it is totally unclear why it is universally accepted that the rock came from Mars, rather than the moon, Io, or Alpha Centauri. There is some similarity in isotope ratios to what is known of Mars, but it isn't all that strong]. Among the material found on/in the rock that appears to by very old are: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; carbonate globules with magnetite inclusions; and possible ovoid and filamentaceous microfossils 20-200 nanometers in diameter. The 'microfossils' are too small to be earthly bacteria. Mars' current magnetic field is quite weak and would not seem strong enough for biomagnetic material to make sense.

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Marystown group

Precambrian volcanic and clastic sediments found in Eastern Newfoundland that lie below clastic sediments that span the PreCambrian-Cambrian boundary. Rocks thought to be equivalent to the Marystown Group have U-Pb dates of 608+/- 25 Ma. The Marystown group is overlain unconformally by the Roncontre Formation.

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Marywadea

A PreCambrian, probably Vendian form that has been considered to be related to Spriggina. Marywadea was described by Glaessner as a polychaete worm. McMenamin did not propose a vendian cell family organization for Marywadea although he classed the similar Spriggina as four element unipolar vendian. To date, I have not encountered a photo, sketch, or description of Marywadea. Ediacara Number [83] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Mashania

A frondlike Vendian pseudo-fossil from North China now felt to be an artifact of metamorphosis. (10i-k) North China

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Mawsonites

A medusoid reaching a diameter of 35 cm or more. The disk includes a small central disk surrounded by about 20 radial strings of raised bumps separated by narrow depressions. It has been conjectured to possibly be a holdfast of some sort. There is one species Mawsonites spriggi. Found in Ediacara Number [67] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Maya River, Siberia

Large late Pre-Cambrian fossils probably algal or perhaps medusoids. Suvorovella, Majella (10ca)

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Medusoids

A class of discoidal or bowl shaped forms -- some with distinguishing features -- many without. Although some resemble modern jellyfish -- thus the name -- odds are that most are not Jellyfish. They may well represent fossils of a number of different animal (or plant or other) forms that happen to have the same common physical shape. Some may be holdfasts for stemmed forms. A few specimens of Cylcomedusa may exhibit stems. Many have been found in in "upside down" "bowl" orientation which is not the way dead jellyfish are usually found. (And seems an unlikely arrangement for a holdfast as well).

Medusoids in the Ediacaran fauna of South Australia are thought to be substantially compressed in thickness during the dehydration of the mud into which they were impressed. The differing patterns on the surface are thought to possibly be musculature patterns resulting from partial decomposition prior to preservation rather than ornamentation as was originally assumed.

Known 'Genera' include: Aspidella, Brooksella, Bunyerichnus Conomedusites, cyclomedusa, Daliania, Ichnusia, Jinxianaella, Liianonanella, Majella, Mawsonites, Medusinites, Morocco Medusoids, Nimbia, Suvorovella Known Localities include: Anti-Atlas Mountains Newfoundland. Ediacara, Podolia, White Sea Ediacara, Finnmark, Charnwood Forest, Olenek, North China, Newfoundland, NW Canada, Podolia, Urals, White Sea (Winter Coast) India - Central India - Rajastan India - South India Iran - Central Maya River, Siberia Sardinia Wales West Africa Western Australia Number [53] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Megahystrichosphaeridium

An ornamented foram from phosphoprites in the neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation from China.

• Megahystrichosphaeridium chadianensis -- China, Scandinavia, Australia, India

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Meifauna

Animals that pass through a .5mm sieve and are retained on .063/.045mm sieves.

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Melanocyrillium

A widespread neoproterozoic vase shaped microfossil.

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Merostomata

A subclass of the Class Arachnida. Merostomata includes the paleozoic marine relatives of spiders. There are several Orders covering the Sea Scorpions (Eurypterica), the Horseshoe Crabs (Xiphosura), and some early forms ( Aglaspida). Only the Aglaspids) extend back to the Cambrian. The technical definition is arachnids with book-gills and six pairs of legs -- four pairs aft of the mouth.

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Metazoans

Multicelled creatures. Excepting algae (multicellular plants) the metazoa seem to have originated about 570 million years ago. The oldest well dated metazoan assemblage is a collection of diverse frond like entities found at Mistaken Point in Newfoundland. Possible older tracks are known from two localities -- one at Chorat in India and one in Central Texas. Given the lack of other older fossils, it seems plausible that these two deposits have been misdated or misinterpreted. Trace fossils and a variety of metazoan fossils become progressively more diverse and common from that time. Abundant metazoan tracks appear about 545Ma along with small calcareous fossils. A collection of very small calcareous fossils known as the Small Shelly Fauna is found just below the first abundant modern forms. Abundant modern forms -- trilobites, brachiopods. Echinoderms, worms, vertebrates, etc. are found starting about 527Ma.

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Medusinites

A simple medusoid. Ediacara, North China, NW Canada, Podolia, Urals, (West Africa) White Sea, Number [57] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Megaspirella

A Cambrian Algae

• Megaspirella houi Chen and Erdtmann, 1991 - maotianshan Shale, China

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Mesophiles

Animals (well, bacteria anyway) that prefer temperature ranges similar to those regarded as normal by humans. Growth Range would be from 8C to 45C or even 50C. Optimal growth around 37C. Bacteria preferring much cooler temperatures are classified as Psychrotrophs or Psychrophiles. Those preferring warmer temperatures are Thermophiles or Hyperthermophiles.

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Metabacterial Origin

A thesis developed primarily by Woese that life originated with an ancient group of thermophylic single celled animals. Woese has demonstrated from rRNA sequence analysis that the Metabacteria ("Archaebacteria") constitute a separate and distinct group from the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. This was presented originally as a "Three Urkingdom" hypothesis, later modified to "three domains."

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Metaspriggina

A little known animal from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It is thought to be a chordate. There are no hard parts.

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Methane

The simplest Hydrocarbon -- four Hydrogen atoms bound to a single Carbon. A light gas that is also a strong greenhouse gas. Methane is uncommon in the modern atmosphere as it is readily oxidized to CO2 and water. It is believed that the early Earth atmosphere may have contained relatively large (perhaps 1%) amounts of Methane thus providing above freezing temperatures even though the sun is thought to have been 20-30% less bright several billion years ago.

It is also projected that a methane rich atmosphere put significant amounts of Hydrogen into the upper atmosphere high above the level usually reached by water molecures. The thesis is that the Hydrogen split off from Methane it could escape the Earth. With the Hydrogen unavailable to combine with Oxygen, the Earth built an excess of Oxygen which was tied up in various minerals until Oxidazable materials such as free iron were all tied up in Oxides.

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Mialsemia

A flattened late pre-Cambrian Vendian form with a head/holdfast (depending on who is hypothesizing) region. White Sea Thought by some to be a proto-Arthropod

Number [88] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Miscellaneous Topics

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Microaerophile

An organism that uses Oxygen in its metabolism, but which can not survive the high levels of Oxygen in the earth's atmosphere.

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Microbialites

Bacterial masses preserved as fossils. More of less flat, laminated structures are known as Stromatolites. Round laminated structures are oncolites. Unlaminated structures are thrombolites

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Mickwitzia Sandstone:

A Lower Cambrian sandstone formation from South Central Sweden. A variety of trace fossils (ichnofossils) are known from the formation. Bergaueria perata, Bergaueria sucta, Brooksella, Cochlichnus, Cruziana rusoformis, Cruziana tenella, Diplocraterion parallelum, Fustiblyphus, Gyrolithes polonicus, Helminithoidichnites tenuis, Hormosiroidea, Monocraterion tentaculatum, Monomorphichnus, Olenichnus, Paleophycus jenense, Rosselia socialis, Rusophycus dispar, Rusophycus jenningsi, Rusophycus eutenorfenis, Scotolithus miribilis, Scotolithus linearis, Syringomorpha nilssoni, Teichichnus ovillus, Treptichnus bifurcus, Trepichnus pedum, Trichophycus venosus, Zoophycus

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Miller Experiment

An experiment performed by University of Chicago graduate student Stanley Miller in May 1953 and documented as "A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth conditions." The experiment created a simulated primitive ocean with a reducing atmosphere of methane, ammonia and hydrogen. When heated and in the presence of electrical discharges, the water quickly acquired a variety of fairly complex organic compounds including amino acids such as Glycine, sugars, and lipids. Since Amino acids are a major building block of life, this experiment is considered to be a major step in understanding the evolution of life. Follow up experiments were done by Miller, Harold Urey and Cyril Ponnamperuma. A variety of compounds important to life have been created in the laboratory. Known problems include the fact that the experiments create racemic (50-50) mixtures of left and right polarizing compounds, serious questions whether the conditions used in the experiment correspond to a realistic primitive earth; and the fact that many important organic compounds including a number of amino acids crucial to life , have never turned up in detectable quantities in the experiments [this last may not be true. It is claimed in some places that all 20 essential amino acids have been found in Miller-Urey experiments]. Among the compounds [asserted to be] missing in Miller-Urey experiments are: Arginine, Lysine, Histidine (Amino Acids), straight chain fatty acids, most coenzymes, ribose (a component of DNA and RNA) and important nucleotides (ATP, CTP, GTP, UTP).

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Microdictyon

A wormlike animal coated with det like scleritic scales from the Early Cambrian Maotianshan shale of Yunnan China. The isolated sclerites are known from other Lower Cambrian deposits

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Miogeosyncline

A structure identified by 19^th Century geologists consisting of depressions and volcanic areas that form along some continental margins. The Geosyncline consists of a depression called a Miogeosyncline that forms on the edge of a continent and a region to the seaward side known as a Eugeosyncline. The Eugeosyncline includes considerable volcanism as well as plutonic incursions. The Eugeosyncline forms along the continental margin and serves as a source rock for the thick clastic deposits that fill the Miogeosyncline. The geosyncline nomenclature has reportedly fallen into disfavor with geologists in recent years.

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Misraea

Possible Pre-Vendian fossils from the PreCambrian of Central India. Some forms from the area are possibly algal. (10ae,10f) Central India

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Misszhouia

A soft-bodied trilobite from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale of Yunnan Province, China. Specimens are known with preserved appendages.

• Misszhousia longicaudata -- Yunnan, China

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Mitochondria

Small bodies included in the non-nuclear material in eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria and photosynthesizing Chloroplasts are thought to have originated as symbiotic prokaryotic bacteria incorporated into eukaryotic cell material. Mitochondria are involved in the production of Adeosine Triphosphate \ a material that is critical to plant and animal metabolism.. They contain genetic material and have an internal metabolism. Mitochondrial DNA is passed purely along the female line.

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Mitochondrial DNA

Genetic material in mitochondrial inclusions in eukaryotic cells. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA is an important tool in molecular systematics as the changes in DNA are cumulative, apparently random, and are thought not to be tied to external characteristics that might tend to select for or against specific sequences. Thus, there is thought to be a direct correlation between the degree of difference between the mitochondrial DNA and the time at which various lifeforms diverged.

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Mitrosagophora

An order of members of the small shelly fauna identified as a possible member of Bergstroem's Infrakingdom Procoelemata or of the Superorder Tommotidae. The Order includes two families--Sunnaginiidae and Tommotidae. Sunnaginiidae includes one genus Sunnaginia. A vaugely slipper shaped hard shelled animal. Tommotidae includes one genus -- Tommotia which includes a small number of species of armored worm like animals.

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Mixotroph

An organism that can burn either organic or inorganic compounds. Includes some Hydrogen and some Sulfur burning bacteria.

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Molaria

An arthropod of unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC. The animal has a large rounded head shield with one pair of multi-segmented antennae and three pairs of biramous gills and walking legs. Unlike many Burgess animals, it appears that the cephalon at least was somewhat mineralized. There are no eyes. The body consists of 8 tapering, legged, articulating segments, a telson, and a long 21 segmented jointed (in some specimens) posterior spine that is "plugged into" the telson. Molaria appears to be closely related to another Burgess form Saratrocercus.

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Molecular Clocks

Molecular Clocks are a technology that attempts to determine the approximate time at which evolutionary lines diverged based on the amount of difference in the DNA of the modern forms. For example, the DNA of frogs and lizards might be examined to get an estimate of when their last common ancestor lived. Some DNA sequences encode real functioning structures and once encoded tend not to change. For example, once the gene for chlorophyl has been developed, the active part is unlikely to change. If it did, the plant the altered DNA encoded probably would not survive. Molecular clocks must work with inactive portions of the DNA that are assumed to be free to change randomly.

It is possible to build a Molecular Clock based on either the DNA (or RNA) used to encode genetic information or on the peptides, proteins and enzymes produced in accordance with the DNA. The latter is easier and more common but results in different rates for every material used since the proportion of "active" (rarely changing or unchanged) to "inactive" (randomly changing) sequences in each material will be different.

There is some preference by some workers in using mitochondrial DNA rather than nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is passed entirely down the female line and does not recombine as a result of sexual activity

The acutal process used is generally to isolate a number of (presumed) biologically inactive amino acid sequences from a number of plants or animals. These must include some plants or animals whose divergance date is well established in some independent fashion \ typically from fossils. The known divergance dates are then used to calibrate the rates of change of the sequences which are then used to estimate unknown divergance dates. Molecular Clock change rates are (purportedly) not a function of population size.

The principle problem with Molecular Clocks is that every clock seems to keep a different time and many are quite inconsistent with the fossil record. Molecular Clock supporters tend to blame the fossil record for giving the wrong answer whereas Molecular Clock detractors tend to consider the inconsistencies in molecular timekeeping to be something of a joke. It has been established (Ayata) that some DNA sequences change at similar rates in similar animals but at quite different rates in dissimilar animals. For example, the GDPH protein changes four times as fast in mammals as in fruit flies. Mitochondrial DNA appears to change 7 to 8 times as fast in mammals as in sharks. Molecular Clock supporters argue that these inconsistences are short term noise and that clocks will tend to work better over long time spans.

For what it is worth, Molecular Clocks have yielded the following dates:

• Divergance of prokaryotes and eukaryotes 2000Ma (Doolittle, Science 1996)

• Divergence of plants, animals, fungi 1000Ma (Doolittle, Science 1996)

• Divergance of modern mammals from mammal rootstock 130Ma

Per Peterson, most studies use one calibration point and nemotode, fruit fly and vertebrate data. Those studies place the Last common Ancestor of the Protostomes and Deuterostomes between 1000Ma and 650Ma. Peterson claims that an analysis based on echinoderm, polychaete, and dermosponges with three Calibration points yields an LCA between 600 and 540Ma which is in close accordance with fossil data.

http://www.astrobiology.ucla.edu/ESS116/L09/L09.text.html

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Molecular Evolution Paradigm

Assumes that early oceans were a naturally occurring soup of organic compounds which eventually evolved self replicating forms that were the precursor of modern life. Differs from the Simplified MEP in that it assumes that recognizable modern life chemistries evolved directly.

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Molecular Systematics

A branch of science that attempts to infer relationships between lifeforms by analysis of differences and similarities in sequences of DNA or other genetic material.

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Mollisonia

An Arthropod of unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Walcott assigned it as a Hypoparid Trilobite. No eyes. There might be a raised facial suture on the cephalon. The cephalon is thin with a fine granular surface. The thorax has seven segments with a raised median ridge (on the back portion of each segment) terminating in blunt, falcate, slightly furrowed ends. There is an eighth segment that appears to be attached to the pygidium. At some point Mollisonia was redscribed under the name Houghtonites. It is not clear by whom or why.

• Mollisonia gracilis Walcott 1912

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Mollusca

A Phylum of advanced marine invertebrates. Most sea shells are mollusks. There are three major Classes of mollusks -- single shelled gastropods, bivalved Pelecypods and Tentacle bearing, sometimes shelled cephalopods. There are also several minor classes -- Scaphopods, Monoplacophorans, Polyplacophores and the Rostroconchs. Although most of the mollusk classes were solidly entrenched by the early to middle Ordovician, only Monoplacophores and possibly Bivalves date back to the early Cambrian. Among the pre-Cambrian animals, Kimberella somewhat resembles what a mollusk ancestor might look like.

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Monera

The kingdom incorporating Procaryotes. Includes:

• Schizomycophyta (bacteria)

• Cyanophyta (blue-green algae)

• Protozoa (includes flagellates, forams, radiolarians)

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Mongolia

Martin Brasier et al. described very definite sponge spicules from latest Precambrian rocks in Mongolia. Lower Cambrian limestone reef complexes made of calcareaous microbes and phosphatic coiled shells similar to Aldanella are reported near Tayshir in Gov-Altai Aimag in Western Mongolia.

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Monian Supergroup

A thick )5.4-7.5 km collection of deformed metasediments of Late Neoproterozoic or possibly Cambrian Age in Western England. Fossils include stromatolites, trace fossils and acritarchs.. It is thought to represent the metamorphised sedimentary fill of a trench-forearc basin.,

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Monomorphichnus

A Vendian and Cambrian trace fossil thought to be an arthropod trace. Found in the Rusophycus avalonensis zone at Chapel head Newfoundland. In central Spain, it is found below Cloudinids.

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Monophyletic

Cladistic jargon. The adjective form of the noun 'Clade'. (Come on now, doesn't "Monophyletic" sound more impressive than "Cladic" or "Cladistic"?). Used to describe a group that includes an ancestral form, all its descendants and no unrelated forms.

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Monoplacophora

Primitive molluscs that may have been the common ancestor of molluscs, annelids and arthropods. A dozen or so species of modern monoplacophora are known. The fossil record is spotty, but goes back to the Lower Cambrian where monoplacophorans are generally associated with stromatolite reefs. The animals are basically segmented mollusks with a calcareaous, limpet-like or conical, shell. Many authors regard the monoplacophora as a class of molluscs.

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Montana

A modern region where late precambrian sediments are found in the Belt sequence of sediments. The best known exposures are along the Going to the Sun Highway in Glacier National Park. Fossils include Stromatolites, worm burrows (Collenia), and a linguloid brachiopod.

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Montgomery Mtns

A modern region of Nevada where late precambrian sediments are found. Cloudiniids occur in the uppermost Stirling Quartzite in this range. Nimbia, Ernietta, and Treptichinus are reported from the Wood Canyon Formation below the first trilobites.

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Monomorphichnus lineatus

A trace fossil found in Spain below Cloudinids.

Azorejo Formation

A sequence of Lower Cambrian sandstones and shales from the Valdelacas anticline in Spain. Rusophycus ichno sp is reported.

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Moorowipora

A Cnidarian(?) from the Lower Cambrian of South Australia that is thought to be a primitive tabulate coral.

• Moorowipora Chamberensis Sorauf and Savarese, 1995

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Morocco

A region where precambrian and Lower Cambrian fossils are found. Exposures are found in the anti-Atlas Mountains and possibly elsewhere. Medusoids are reported from the Precambrian rocks. Trilobites are reported from the Cambrian rocks including Fallotopsis and Holmia.

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'Morocco Medusoids'

Probable late pre-Cambrian medusoids of unknown affinity from the Anti-Atlas Mountains range of Morocco.

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Morania

Dark, irregular patches thought to represent cyanobacterial colonies similar to the modern Nostoc.

Morania fragmenta -- Middle Cambrian Wheeler Shale - Utah

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Mt McRae Shale

2500Ma sediments containing well characterized biomarker chemicals.

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Mpumalanga Province, South Africa

Area where 55 foot paleosoil containing organic carbon is found between 2.7 billion year old serpentine and 2.6 billion year old quartzite. The material shows no sign of high temperature alteration and appears to be dispersed in situ in clays between sandy layers. Later infusion of petroleum derived hydrocarbons would surely disperse the organics in the sandy layers rather than the clays. The material is assumed to be the remains of algal mats

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Multiplicisphaeridium

A Lower Cambrian acritarch(?) or diatom(?) from the Carapathian region

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Murchinson Meteorite

A meteorite that impacted near Murchison, Australia on September 28, 1969. About 100kg of material were recovered that was found to contain 90 amino acids including at least 19 also found on earth. The amino acids were racemic mixtures as might be expected from inorganic origin or from very old material.

A meteorite that landed in Australia in 1969 and was found to contain a number of organic acids and amino acids including abundant glycine and alanine.

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Myllokummingia

A primitive probably agnathid (jawless) fish from the Lower Cambrian Chenjiang shales of China. It is described as 28mm long and 6mm high. The holotype was found in the Yuanshan member of the Qiongzhusi Formation in the Eoredlichia Zone near Haikou at Ercaicun, Kunming City, Yunnan, China. The animal has a distinct head and trunk with a forward sail like 1.5mm dorsal fin and a ventral fin fold (probably paired) further back. The head has five or six gill pouches with hemibranchs. There are 25 segments (myomeres) with rear directed Vs in the trunk. There is a notochord, a pharynx and digestive tract that may run all the way to the rear tip of the animal. The mouth can not be clearly identified. There may be a pericardic cavity. There are no fin radials. There is only one specimen which has the tip of the tail buried in sediment. There is no sign of mineralization of the skeletal elements.

A similar creature is known as Haikouichthys. Suspected Hemichordates (more primitive chordates) are also known from these deposits as well as from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Other than possible fish scales from the Upper Cambrian of Wyoming, these Chinese fish are the only known pre-Ordovician vertebrates.{23}

• Myllokummingia fengjiaoa Shu, Zhang & Han

http://www.natureasia.com/get.pl5/hottopics/991104shu/hottopics991104a.en.shtml

http://www.paleondemand.com/repo/repoe.htm (Picture)

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Myobong Slate

Cambrian detrial formation found near Dongjeom in Korea. Trace Fossils are found including: Skolithos, Cruziana, Didymaulichnus, Dimorphichnus, Diplocraterion,Monomorphichnus, Planolites, Rusophycus, Taphrhelminthopsis, Rusphycus

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Myoscolex

An obscure arthropod(?) from the Lower Cambrian Emu Bay Shale of Australia. The fossils are preserved as Calcium Phosphate replacements of muscle tissue. The animal is segmented and has four eyes. It was originally thought to be a polychaete worm, but later workers believe it is an arthropod possibly related to Opabinia.

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Myriapods

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Myxococoides

A cover taxa for coccoidal problematica. May be either prokaryotes or Eukaryotes. Found in the Neoproterozoic Doushantuo Formation of China. Rare in cherts. Common in some phosphates.

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Nadalina

NW Canada Number [53] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Namalia

Simple discoids filled with sand found near Aus in Namibia in quartzite in the Kliphoek member of the Schwarzrand Limestone associated with Pternidium.- Namibia(14) Number [20] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Namibia

A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. - Ausia, Beltanella, Cloudina, 'cups'?, Ernietta, Helminthopsis , Hagenetta, Kuibisia, Namalia, Nasepia, Protoyellia Pternidium, Rangea, 'Segmented', Spriggina, Velancorina, One locality is near the Aar Farm near Aus, Namibia. Fossils include three dimensional Pternidium and Namalia in Sandstones, and Cloudina in Buff Limestones. The original discoveries were made in the 1920s, but were misdated and were not investigated until after the discovery of Ediacaran fossils in Australia in the 1950s.

• The rock sequence -- oldest to youngest is:

• Kuibis Subgroup -- Proterozoic

• Dabis Formation

• Kanis Member

• Mara Member

• Kliphoek Formation

• Ptenidinium

• Ernietta

• Rangea

• Cyclomedusa

• Beltaneliformia

• Palaeopascichnus

• Zaris Formation

• Schwarzrand Subgroup

• Nudaus Formation

• Urusis Formation

• Nasep Sandstone Member

• Treptichnus

• Nasepia

• Archaeichinium

• Huna Limestone Member

• Archaeichinium

• Felds. Member

• Swartzpuntia

• Spitskop Member: Beds in upper part are dated at 545Ma/543.3Ma.

• Swartzpuntia

• Pternidium

• Fish River Subgroup (Basal Cambrian)

• Nomisas Formation

• Treptichnus pedum

• Vargesig Formation

• Stockdale Formation

• Breckhorn Formation

• Nababia Formation

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Nanobacteria

"Nanobacteria" are "lifeforms" smaller than about 0.2 micrometers in diameter. Defined as being bacterial cells in the 0.05 to .2 micrometer range with volumes as low as .001 of that of a typical small bacterium. Robert Folk is the principal name associated with nanobacterial research. Often spelled 'nannobacteria'.

A second claim for nanobacteria was made by Kajander and Ciftcioglu in 1998. It is claimed that the entities, whatever they are, can be cultured, form microscopic structures of the mineral apatite, and have identifiable RNA. Nanobacteria were originally cultured from mammal blood. The primary marker are flattened hollow spheres of Apatite. Subsequently, investigators have found purported nanobacterial cultures in petroleum deposits and in a "Mars" meteorite (not ALH84001).

It has been alleged that the reagents used by the Finns may have been contaminated with Phyllobacterium mysinacearum and that the apatite could have been formed naturally. It has been suggested that Tetracycline sensitivity of the nanobacteria may be a chemical phenomenon -- altering Calcium chemistry in the culture -- rather than a biological one.

http://naturalscience.com/ns/cover/cover14.html

http://naturalscience.com/ns/articles/01-03/ns_folk.html

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Naraoia

A soft shelled trilobite with no body segments from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale and also reported from the Lower Cambrian of China{1}

Naraoia is a soft bodied trilobite in which the body covering has not subdivided, resulting in a two part exoskeleton composed of the cephalic and thoracic shields. Specimen is 2 cms long.


Non-copyrighted sketch of Naroia drawn from a specimen from the Burgess shale.

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Nasepia

A frondlike preCambrian animal known only from distorted, (storm?) damaged specimens. Appears to consist of three petals repeated. McMenamin proposes it as a three cell group relative of Spriggina, Marywadea and Dickinsonia. Namibia Number [19] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Nation, Alaska

An area of Alaska where rocks of the late PreCambrian and Early Cambrian Tindir Group are exposed. A few poorly preserved coccoid fossils are known from the dolomite and shales of both the lower and upper parts of the formation on the West bank of the Yukon River. Further west shales and volcanics contain coccoids, Filamentous microfossils, fungi, protists, fungi?, Cyanobacteria, Paleonostocalia, chancellerid (several types) and poriferan (?) spicules and metazoan fragments.

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Nebular Hypothesis

Originally set forth by Kant and Laplace in the 18^th Century. It assumes that Solar system originated from collapse of a gas cloud under some stimulus like the shock wave from a supernova. (A) star(s) forms within about 100,000 years. Planets then begin to accrete. Isotope dating of metallic meteorites places the accretion at 4.55-4.56 billion years ago. Boulder sized entities accrete from dust and the boulders then accrete into planets over a period of 10s or hundreds of millions of years.

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Nectocaris

An animal of unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC. It was described by Morris in 1976. The head has two eyes, one or two pairs of appendages and an oval carapace or shield at the rear. No shell hinge is visible in the single known specimen.The rest of the animal consists of about 40 segments -- each with three short spines on the top and bottom. A long fin runs the length of the top and bottom of the animal. The species is based on a single specimen and is thought to be a hemichordate, chordate, possibly an arthropod, remotely possibly a crustacean, or very likely something else. It is thought to be a free swimming animal caught by accident in a turbidity flow. It is unclear whether growth was by moulting (as with arthropods) or not. There apprear to be no hard parts. The pair of short straight appendages on the front of the head appear to be unjointed.{1}

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Negaunee Iron

A 2100 M.a. Formation containing fossils of Eukaryotic algae

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Nemiana

Simple bulbous fossils found in large groups. Sacklike possibly with a mouth. Typically Reported from beds just above local disturbances. Found in White Sea region of Russia. - Ediacara, NW Canada, Podolia, Olenek, White Sea Urals, Number [59] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Neocobboldia

A lower cambrian pagetoid trilobite. The cephalon is similar to Serrodiscus, but without the marginal pits and with small free cheeks, The pygidium has 5 well defined segments with teeth along the rear margin. L dentata is known from the Lena River valley of Russia.

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Nenoxites

A proterozoic trace fossil found in the Harlaniella podolica zone in the Chapel Island Formation in Newfoundland. It is simple cylindrical burrow with occasional abrupt changes in direction.

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Neurosetae

Whatever they are, Wiwaxia might have had them.

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Neutrophile

An organism that lives at ph around 7.

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Nevada

One of the new things from Nevada is a tube about 5 mm across with a square cross section. Bearing in mind that there are living jellyfish whose polyp stages live in tubes, this is one of the best pieces of evidence for real cnidarians that I know of, if I do say so myself.(Ben Waggoner)

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Nevadella

A trilobite resembling Nevadia but slightly younger. Found in a zone near the Middle Lower Cambrian Harkless Formation in California's White Mountains and Esmeralda Cy, NV. Has a longer cephalon and broader rim than Nevadia.

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Neuropodium

One of the two branches of the podia (legs) of biramous polychaete worms. The other branch is the Notopodium

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Nevadia

An Ollenelid trilobite form resembling Wanneria but somewhat older. Nevadia is found in the early Lower Cambrian of the Western United states -- especially the White Mountains of California and Esmeralda Cy, Nevada where it is found in the Poleta Formation. Nevadia resembles Olenellus but lacks the development of the third thoracic segment and has no tail spine. It is easily confused with Wanneria, but the latter is somewhat less spiny; has a larger glabella and is found in the late Lower Cambrian of the East Coast. Treatise Description page O196 "Nevadia Walcott 1910 [N. weeksi]. Cephalon about 3 times as wide as long, with well-developed preglabellar field and narrow border. Thorax (as far as known) of 17 postthoracic segments followed by 11 post-thoracic ones with rudimentary spinelike pleurae."

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Newfoundland

- A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. Many fossils from this assemblage have been poorly described. - Aspidella, Bradgatia, Charnia , 'comb', cyclomedusa , 'Dumplings', Glaessnerina, Ivesia. 'spindle', 'spindleholdfast', 'stalk-like', 'star', 'waterlily', (101q-10as) The fossils are found at Mistaken Point about 7km West of Cape Race at the Southeastern extremity of the Island. The abundant fossils are found in 15 distinct layers where deposits of white volcanic ash have been laid down burying the fossils in place. The fauna is among the oldest, and best dated of the Neoproterozoic faunas. It appears to have been deposited in deep water{14}

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Nimbia

A simple medusoid. Flat, circular or oval with a thick marginal rim. May have a Central tubercle. May have raised or depressed center Specimens from the Stirling Quartzite in the Montgomery Mtns, NV are 6cm in diameter and 1cm thick. Finnmark, Podolia, SW North America, -- Montgomery mountains -- Nimbia occlusa Fedonkin (West Africa), [County Wexford, Ireland? (Upper Cambrian)(10bq)] White Sea, Number [61] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Non-Aqueous Creation

A theory that is based on the fact that polymerization of amino acids into polypeptides and into nucleic acids yields water as a product, and therefore is not energetically very favorable in aqueous solutions. The theory is that amino acids are created in aqueous solutions, but that polymerization into assorted more or less random polypeptides occurs in dry, hot (180C) environments working on amino acids originally created in the oceans. Some analysts, including Miller, are skeptical that sufficient hot, dry, environments stocked with raw materials would have existed in the early environment.

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NonReducing Atmosphere Theories

Theories that assume that Atmospheric Ammonia was quickly dissolved in the early ocean and Hydrogen quickly escaped leaving an atmosphere of methane, nitrogen, Carbon oxides and water. Miller has demonstrated that minimal amounts of Ammonia still allow creation of a wide variety of organics. However some workers feel that even that much Ammonia is unlikely.

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Nonesuch Shale

A gray/black, lacustrine, organic rich shale found in the proterozoic Oronto Group of the Western Great Lakes Region. It lies above the Copper Harbor Conglomerate and below the Freda Sandstone. The formation is rich in Copper Sulfides which are mined commercially near White Pine, MI. It is thought the the Nonesuch was deposited in a failed rift valley that extends from Lake Superior to Kansas. Laterally equivalent organic rich shales are being investigated as petroleum sources. The age is roughly 1.0Ga. Microfossils per se have not been recognized, but a variety of complex organic compounds of probable biologic orgin have been identified.

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Norman Wells, NWT, Canada

An area where single celled animals are found in 800 Million Year old sediments. Chuaria circularis, Tawuia dalensis

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Normandy

An area where Vendian fossils have been found

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North Carolina

A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. The fossils are apparently found in the "Carolina Slate Belt" a region of old metasediments parallel to and to the East of the Appalachian range. At least some of the fossils are reported to come from Stanley county - Archaeichinium, Palaeotrochus(A pseudofossil). Pternidium, Vendospica Vermiforma (10an-10ap) A few Pternidium and Vendospica are reportedly found in blocks and slabs of "Carolina Slate Belt" slate in a creekbed near Albemarle, Stanley County. Specimens are few and the rocks are said to have a strong secondary cleavage that makes looking for specimens difficult.

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North China

- A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. There are apparently two localities - Liaononing and Jixi.- Beltanella, cyclomedusa , Daliana, Glaessnerina, Jinxianaella, Jixiella, Lianonella, Liaononingia, Mashania, Medusinites, Platypholina, Sabellidites, (10i-k)

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North China Platform

A Cambrian area of East china with diverse and unique upper and Middle Cambrian trilobite faunas. The rocks are found in isolated belts throughout North China. Lower Cambrian limestones, marls and shales include frequent hiati. The classical sequence for the area is exposed in Shandong Province. Early Cambrian Geography

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North Greenland

A sequence of Lower Cambrian rocks is exposed in Northern Greenland. Investigated by Blaker and Peel 1997. From Youngest to Oldest:

• Buen Formation - siliclastics -- Buenellus higginsi, Sirius Passet fauna, A Limniphacos, Olenellus Hyperboreus. O svalbarensis, Alacephalus davisi

• Broenlund Fjord Formation Carbonates and siliclastics -- Upper Olenellus zone

• Kap Troedsson/Aftensjernesoe Formations -- Ekwipagetia, Serrodiscus, Calodiscus

• Heson Gletscher Formation -- Kootenia, Ogygopsis, Zacanthopsis, Perissopyge, Pagetides, Bonnia, Peronopsis, Arthricocephalus chauveaui, Halikoplanktos jishouensis(also found in China and Siberia)

• Saeteral Formation -- Olenelloids, Kootenia marcoui, Bonnia brennus

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North India

Vendian-age fossils have been reported in North India by Mathur and Shanker (1989 et seq.). They have been debated in the Indian literature (e.g. Bhatt, 1990; and further comments and replies). Some are probably not biogenic; others may be (reviewed in Sharma et al.,1992). The fossils include medusoids and are found in the Krol Formation in the Naini Tai syncline of the Lesser Himalaya.

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NorthWest Canada 1

- A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. Three different areas are identified for Vendian animals. The MacKenzie Mountains - Sekwi Brook area; The Wernecke Mountains; and the Miette Group in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia. The faunas of the three areas are similar and are commonly lumped as the Windemere Fauna. - Beltanella, Beltanelliformis, Charniodiscus , cyclomedusa , Ediacaria, Eoporpita, Hiemalora, Inkrylovia, Kullingia, Medusinites, Nadalina, Nemiana, Plumose_problematicum, Protodipleurosoma, Rugoconites, Sekwia, Spriggia, Tirasiana, Windermeria, (10ai-10am)

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NorthWest Canada 2

A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. These appear to be legitimate fossils older than most Vendian fossils. They are found in beds between tillite beds.(10x)

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Northern Labrador

-- Proterozoic -- Mugford Group -- Microfossils, coal of bacterial origin

• Knob Lake, Lab in Redmond Iron deposits -- Cretaceous -- -- Plants/Insects

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Notopodium

One of the two branches of the podia (legs) of biramous polychaete worms. The other branch is the Neuropodium

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Notozoe

An Ostracod somewhat similar to Leperditia, but larger. Found in the Lower Cambrian of Vermont near Bennington and in Salisbury at the outlet of Lake Dunmore where it is reportedly associated with hyolithes and trilobite fragments.

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Nucleotide Synthesis

Nucleotides such as AMP have been synthesized in 85-100C dry environments by reacting polypeptides with polyphosphates. Activation of nucleotides to make ATP, CTP, UPT and GTP have not yet been synthesized abiotically nor have they been joined to make RNA.

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Obruchevella

A coiled microbe thought to be a cyanobacteria found in the Neoproterozoic of China. Found in, but not limited to the Doushantuo formation in China.

• Obruchevella parva - Doushantuo Formation -- china

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Odaraia

A bivalved arthropod from the Burgess Shale near Field, British Columbia. Odaria is up to 15cm in length with very large eyes and a single pair of "legs" behind the mouth. The body has up to 45 segments each (except possibly the first two) with a pair of gills and legs. Odaria has a unique three fluked tail with two flukes pointing to the side and one pointing down. The carapace is tubular and probably prevented the legs from extending beyond the shell. The modern interpretation was published by Biggs in 1981.{1} It is conjectured that the animal swam upside down.and that the large tail structure was required to stabilize the animal. It is unclear where or how the hinged shell attached and how many of the body segments were capable of moving independently of the shell. A row of teeth has been observed that seem to indicate a mandible. Obviously they would have little use or affect unless they and the structure around them has some strength. There were also spines on the legs and body segments. There is no evidence of moulting, but since the animal is probably an arthropod, growth was probably by moulting. It is unclear whether the eye lenses were hard.

• Odaria alata Walcott 1912 \ Burgess Shale

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Odontogriphus

An Animal of unknown affinity from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC. The animal is a flattened, elongate, oval animal. The single known specimen is about 5cm in length. The head bears two sensory (palps) just aft of a mouth with about 25 tiny conical "teeth" with no apparent mechanism for biting or rasping. The body is divided into 25 segments or annulations from just behind the palps back to the tail.{1}

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Oesia

An animal of unknown affinity from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Walcott (1911) interpreted it as a tube-dwelling polychaete. No hard parts other than possibly minute hooks at the anterior end. Apparently has not been restudied.

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Ogygopsis

A trilobite generally associated with the Middle Cambrian. Found in the Upper Lower Cambrian Henson Gletscher formation of Northern Greenland

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Ohmoto, Hiroshi

Astrobiologist/Geochemist at Penn State University. Known for research on pre-Cambrian paleosoils. Studied 2.6/2.7Ma organics in soils in South Africa. See: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/11/001130074457.htm

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Oklitchichicathus

A Tommotian archeocyathid from the Lena River at Yakutia, Siberia. O disciformis is quite small -- about 3mm in diameter.

• Oklitchichicathus disciformis Zhuravleva 1970

http://www.kheper.auz.com/gaia/Paleozoic/Cambrian/Tommotian/tomm1.htm

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Oldhamia

A trace fossil found in Proterozoic and Paleozoic rocks. The youngest specimens are in the Carboniferous. Fossils consist of a large number of narrow, "petal shaped" burrows radiating from a common center. Some Cambrian forms are circular. Later forms are semicircular or structured like a pine branch with radiating needles. The burrows were apparently formed on the surface below algal mats in marine environments. Described by C.D.Walcott in 1894 It is known from the Yukon, Ellesmere Island, Southern Quebec, Alaska (Tindir Group), Maine, Argentine Andes, South Africa (vanrhynsdorp), Holy Cross Mtns, Morocco http://www.erdw.ethz.ch/~pe/1999_1/books/fossil.htm

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Olenek

- A modern region where Vendian fossils have been found. - Anabylia, Aspidella hatyspytia, Charnia , 'Charniodiscus , cyclomedusa, Ediacaria, Glaessnerina, Hiemalora, Khatyspytia, Kullingia, Nemiana, Ovatoscutum, (10aw)

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Olenellidae

Family Olenellidae An early Cambrian trilobite family. I'm going to quote the Treatise in hopes it informs the reader more than it does me: "Exoskeleton subovate to elongate, almost flat to moderately convex, micropygous. Cephalon subsemicircular to semielliptical, devoid of dorsal sutures, with well-defined border, 3 to 5 pairs of lateral glabellar furrows, eyes mostly large, genal spines usually present. Thorax generally composed of numerous segments with well-defined pleural furrows and well-developed pleural spines or acutely terminating, falcate distal portions. Pygidium of a single segment or with a couple of segments indicated. Outer surface usually covered with granules or delicate network of raised lines or both."

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Olenellina

An Early Cambrian Trilobite suborder of the order Redlichia. The Olenellina are divided into two families -- the Olenellidae and the Daguinaspinidae. The Family Olenellidae in turn are divided into a number of subfamilies. Both families have small pygidia and lack facial sutures/free cheeks. The Daguinaspinidae have a distinctive, nearly round cephalon whereas the Olenellidae have wider cephalons.

Geyer feels that the Olenellidae are misplaced in the classical scheme and that the Ollenelids, Holmiids and Fallotapsids represent three descendants of an unknown common stock. He feels that the Redlichids are descended from the Fallotapsids.

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Olenellus

A common Lower Cambrian trilobite genus found in most Lower Cambrian deposits of North America as well as some areas such as Scotland and Scandanavia previously attached to North America. Olenellus has a distinct, often semi-circular, cephalon with a grooved glabella and two semi-circular eyes. The free cheeks do not separate from the cephalon. The cephalon often has one or two pairs of genal spines of varying lengths. The body has a number of segments tapering to a tail containing a long spine and a lobster like tail that is usually covered by the final body segments. The third body segment is enlarged with long spines. Basically, any early, spiny, trilobite with a minuscule pygidium is generally classified as a Ollenelid. Olenellids range in size from a few cm to perhaps 15 to 20cm in length.


Olenellus gilberti -- surely copyrighted

• A number of species have been described and several associated genera have been erected, and, in some cases eliminated. The genus Padeamius described in the early literature has fallen into disfavor and is now classed as a variant of Olenellus. The differentiation was determined by the presence of a small ridge from the glabella to the rim on some specimens in some species of Olenellus. The genus Fremontia -- an Ollenelid from Western North America with a heavy rim has been redescribed as a species of Olenellus, O freemonti. The genus Bristolia resembles Olenellus and is distinguished primarily by long advanced genal spines. Wanneria resembles Olenellus, but lacks the exaggerated third body segment of Olenellus. Peachella resembles Olenellus, but has bloated genal spines. The following species of Olenellus are recognized. The list is probably not exhaustive:

• Olenellus Clarki (Resser) A small animal typically 3 to 6cm in length. Pretty much a prototypical Olenellid. Common in the Great Basin.{6}

• Olenellus Gilberti (Meek) indistinguishable from O Clarki as far as I can see. May be differentiated by small spines on the rear margin of the cephalon in O Clarki. Same physical range as O Clarki.{6}

• Olenellus Freemonti {Walcott) -- similar to O Clarki but with a heavy, thick rim. Appears to be a valid separate species. Same physical range as O clarkii. Originally described as Fremontia.{6}

• Olenellus Nevadaensis -- found late in the Lower Cambrian in Western North America. Distinguished by small, slightly advanced genal spines and wider rear segments than typical olenellids.

• Olenellus mohaviensis -- a typical olenellid with a rounded cephalon and somewhat advanced genal spines. Possibly an intermediate form between O Clarkii and Bristolia

• Olenellus Robsonensis (Burling) Minor overdevelopment of the third thoracic segment. Rear segments larger than other Olenellids. Heavy tail spine and long spiny posterior structure similar to O Vermontanus. From the Lower Cambrian of Western Canada{6}

• Olenellus thompsoni -- Northwest Vermont -- A rather short and squat body for an Olenellid. The third segment is less overdeveloped than most.

• Olenellus vermontatus -- Northwest Vermont -- an exceptionally long, narrow body with a distinctive segmented pygidium (tail shield) of about a dozen segments.

• Olenellus Puertoblancoensis (Lochman) Sonora, American SW. Cephalon has rear margin that thins substantially in the middle. Long eyes. narrow glabella. Thorax unknown?{6}

• Olenellus multinodus

• Olenellus hyperboreus -- An Olenellus found at the Nevadella-Olenellus zone boundaries in the Buen Formation of Northern Greenland

• Olenellus svalbardensis -- On Olenellus found near the top of the Buen Formation of Northern Greenland

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Oligotroph

A bacteria capable of living and growing in substrates with small amounts of Organic Material. 10-15 micrograms of Carbon per liter.

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Oman

- Cloudina(10a)

(10a)Conway Morris, S., Mattes, B. W., and Chen Menge. 1990. The early skeletal organism Cloudina : new occurrences from Oman and possibly China. American Journal of Science 290A: 245-260.

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Onchocephalus

A trilobite. At least one specimen of Onchocephalus has been found in the Latham Shale of Southern California(3)

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Oncolites

-- Spherical algal objects dating back well into the pre-Cambrian. Similar to Stromatolites which they resemble except in shape. Less common since the start of the Cambrian apparently because of predation. Now found only in alkaline coastal environments that are extremely hostile to other life forms.

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Onega

White Sea Number [92] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Onverwacht Group

• billion year old rocks in the Eastern Transvaal of South Africa containing fossilized bacteria-like single celled creatures. Six types of short filament structures resembling blue-green algae are known from the Warrawoona Group of Australia and the Onverwacht Group of South Africa. Stromatolites are also present. The type locality is at Barberton Mountain in Swaziland(?). The Onverwacht group is largely volcanic dating from 3472 to 3416 Ma. Overlies the Theespruit Gniess (3538ma) lies below the Fig Tree Group which contains better preserved bacterial fossils. There appears to be some confustion here as another source indicates that organics in the Overvacht are confined to simple organic compounds; stable, organic C13/C12 ratios; and microspheres that might be fossils.

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Onychophora

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Opabinia

A animal of unknown affinities from the Burgess Shale near Field, BC. It is a segmented animal with 15 segments plus a head. The head has five eyes and a long snout like protuberance (a trunk) ending in grasping spines apparently used in feeding. There are no antennae, feeding legs or walking legs, on the head. Each segment carries two large thin lobes pointed downward and outward with a gill on the top surface. Although this is a biramous structure (sort of) it is not the same as the biramous structure of gills and walking limbs found in many arthropods. On the rearmost three segments, the lobes point upward and form the tail. Opabinia is known from the Burgess Shale of British Columbia, and from the Matsoshian Shale of China.{1}

Opabinia is possibly related to the arthropods and, more closely, to the anamalocrids. Cephalon appears to be a single segment with five eyes rather than a construction of fused segments. Outmost pair of eyes on short broad stalks. Inner pair on shorter stalks. Fifth eye might not be on stalk. Eyes were compound and the lenses were hard. The nature of the "snout" is unclear, but it apparently is a single continuous structure and not composed of partially fused antennae as was proposed early on. There were as many as a dozen large, forward pointed spines with smaller spines at their base. Numerous grooves and striations are present. It is unclear it the snout was rigid, or hydrostatically inflated. Although the body has grooves and appears to be segmented, the "shell" appears to be integral (fused) and to cover the entire animal with no joints. The lobes were separate. Thin and flexible. There appear to have been conical lobopod like limbs. The tail was thin and is crushed in some specimens. There were a pair of spines at the rear of the tail fan.

No juvenile specimens are known.

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Organelles

Primitive cell like entities found within the cytoplasm of Eukaryotic cells. Mitochondira and Chloroplasts.

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Organics in Space

On April 26, 2000, the team operating the mass spectrometer on NASA's Stardust mission announced the detection of very large organic molecules in space. Nonbiological sources for organic molecules so large are not known.

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Orgel, Leslie

A researcher who has been working -- so far unsuccessfully -- on the synthesis of activated nucleotides and RNA abiotically.

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Origin Of Life

The origin of life on earth is unknown. In addition to divine creation, it has also been theorized that life originated elsewhere and was transported to Earth as bacterial spores. The mainstream theory is that the early seas and atmosphere were rich in methane, carbon dioxide and other compounds that are relatively rare nowadays. A 1950s experiment showed that under some circumstances a wide variety of organic compounds can be created in such an environment. With nothing to eat them, progressively more complex compounds were formed until some compound capable of self replication resulted. It is then assumed the self replicating compounds became more diverse and complex over time eventually evolving into single celled animals. Systems of amino acid fragment chains known as peptides are known that are capable of self replication. The nature of the transition from self replicating peptides to RNA and DNA controlled reproduction is obscure, but plausible.

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Oro Experiment

An experiment conducted by Juan Oro in 1959 or 1961 (depending on which web site you believe) involving Hydrogen Cyanide and Ammonia in aqueous solution in the presence of heat and Ultraviolet light. Oro was able to synthesize amino acids as well as very large amounts of the biologically active nucleotide Adenine. Later experimenters were able to create RNA and DNA in similar experiments. The major difficulties with this hypothesis as an origin for organic life is that in aqueous solutions, HCN fairly quickly breaks down to formic acid and that no plausible source for large amounts of HCN has been identified.

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Oscillatoriopsis

A Filamentous microfossil -- presumably a cyanobacterium -- from the 1,000 year old Bitter Springs Chert in Australia. The filaments are strongly segmented into several dozen segments that have actually separated into discrete disks in some specimens.

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Ottoia

A common 8cm priapulid worm or acorn worm from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. Ottoia lived in a U-shaped burrow, but is thought also to have been a sediment burrower. There is a ring of hooks (how are they attached) around the head. There are spines on the probiscis. Gut contents include remains of the probably pretty much immobile (?) hyolithid Haplophrentis and of other Ottoia imply that Ottoia probably had considerable mobility. Ottoia does not closely resemble other Burgess priapulids or modern taxa. Briggs has assigned Ottoia to the Enteropneusta (acorn worms). Morris says that whatever it is, it is not a priapulid.

• 
  Ottoia tenuis - British Columbia?

• Ottoia prolifica - British Columbia

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/pottoia.htm

Picture Probably Copyrighted

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Ovatoscutum

Ediacara, Olenek, White Sea Number [39] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Ovruchevella

A large coiled bacteria. Found near the top of the Neoproterozoic/Cambrian Tindir group near Tatonduk, Alaska.

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Oxygen Degradation

A thesis that significant amounts of free Oxygen could not have been present when life evolved because many organic compounds critical to life are easily oxidized and require either physical isolation in an anaerobic environment or protective enzymes.

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Ozarkcollenia

Stromatolites found in precambrian rocks in the Ozarks of Arkansas with a tentative age of 1500MA.

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Padeamius

A Genus recognized by early authors but since rejected as merely a variant found in many species of Olenellus. Padeamius is distinguished by having a ridge connecting the rim of the cephalon with the glabella whereas Olenellus as originally defined lacks the ridge. Range is the same as Olenellus -- i.e. The Cambrian of Laurentia (North America, Scotland, Greenland, Siberia, etc.)

• P transitans, VT

• P Yorkensis, Resser & Howell, PA

Taxonomy (per The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology)

• Phylum Arthropoda

• Class Trilobita Walch, 1771

• Order Redlichiida Richter, 1933

• Suborder Olenellina Resser, 1938

• Family Olenellidae Vogdes, 1893

• subFamily Olenellidae Vodges, 1893

• Genus Paedeumias Walcott 1910

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Pagetia

A trilobite resembling the agnostids and eodiscids somewhat. The glabella has small free cheeks with a long spine. There are two thorax segments and a trilobite like pygidium terminating in a long spine. Pagetia is found in the Lower and Middle Cambrian of Europe, Asia, and North America. Pagetides and Pagetiellus are similar trilobites without the pygidial spine. P. bootes is known from British Columbia.

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Pagetides

A Lower Cambrian pagetoid trilobite. Similar to Pagetia but without the long spine on the pygidium. A trilobite resembling the agnostids and eodiscids somewhat. The glabella has small free cheeks. There are three thorax segments and a trilobite like pygidium terminating in a long spine. P rupestris an P elegans are reported from Quebec. P parkeri reported from Kelly Quarry, Swanton, VT

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Pagetiellus

A Lower Cambrian pagetoid trilobite. Similar to Pagetia but without the long spine on the pygidium. A trilobite resembling the agnostids and eodiscids somewhat. The glabella has small free cheeks. There are three thorax segments and a trilobite like pygidium terminating in a long spine. P lenaicus is known from the Lena River valley of Siberia.

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Pagitidae

A family of small trilobites with pygidia the same size and shape as the cephalon. Small free cheeks. Small Eyes in some genera. Tails are trilobite like with 4 to 12 rings. Two or three thoracic segments. Some genera have a single substantial central spine on the rear of the glabella and, in some genera, the pygidium. Found in the Lower and Middle Cambrian of North America, Eastern North America, Siberia, and Europe.

• Pagetia

• Delgadella

• Hebediscus

• Neocobboldia

• Pagetides

• Pagetiellus

• Triangulaspis

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Palaeopascichnus

A proterozoic trace fossil found in the Harlaniella podolica zone in the Chapel Island Formation in Newfoundland. A horizontal burrow characterized by regular flattened transverse "segments". A curved multibranch non-trace fossil from the Woonka Formation of South Australia is thought by Haines to be a variant of Palaeopascichnus indicating that the form might not be an ichnofossil.

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Paleae

The (long?) spines on the back of the sclerite bearing animal Wiwaxia.

Paleolina

A proterozoic wormlike fossil from China. It is found in the Nanguanling Formation. The age of the formation is thought to be about 700 Ma.

• Paleolina tortuosa -- Jiuliqiao formation in Jinagsu and Anhui provinces, China

Paleonostocalia

A precambrian form from the late precambrian of the Nation Area in Alaska

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Palaeophycus

A trace fossil found in the Abrigo Shale of Arizona

Paleorhynchus

A proterozoic wormlike fossil from China. It is found in the Nanguanling Formation. The age of the formation is thought to be about 700 Ma.

• Paleorhynchus anhuiensis -- Jiuliqiao formation in Jinagsu and Anhui provinces, China

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Palaeophragmodictya

A Vendian (PreCambrina) animal from the Ediacara fauna of South Australia. Bowl shaped with a scalloped rim and a longitudinal and latitudinal grid that may show where unpreserved six spiked (Hexactinellid) spicules were present. Colonies have individuals spaced about 3mm apart. Thought to have sat on the inverted "top" of the bowl. May have a tendril surrounded mouth on top. Gehling and Rigby have tentatively proposed that Palaeophragmodictya may be a primitive sponge.{6}{14}, It has been proposed that Palaeophragmodictya is the earliest known Hexactinellid sponge and that the Hexactinallids should be split off into (yet another) new phylum Symplasma - Ediacara Number [97] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Palaeoplatoda

White Sea Number [95] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Paleoscolex.

Very small annelid worms. Paleoscolex antiquus from Australia's Emu Bay Shale is similar, but much larger and may not be an annelid. One conjecture is that it is the pedical stalk of a brachiopod.

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Palaeotrochus

A pseudofossil formed by pyrite rosettes. They are disks or spindles with - radiating straiations on both sides. Emmons described P major and P minor from early Cambrian or late Pre-Cambrian beds in Montgomery County in North Carolina in 1856. North Carolina (14)

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Paleovaucheria

A filament from the 900-1000 million year old Lakhanda Formation in Siberia. It is thought possibly to be a Xanthophyte (Yellow-Green Algae).

• Paleovaucheria clavata

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Paliella

Podolia, Urals, White Sea Number [46] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Pannotia

A late neoproterozoic Supercontinent that evolved from Rodinia. According to Dalziel, Pannotia resided in the Southern Hemisphere and broke up in the latest Neoproterozoic.

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Panspermia

A theory that life on earth originated elsewhere. It originated with the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, but was not widely considered until after the 1860s Louis Pasteur conducted experiments that discredited the then popular theory of spontaneous generation of life from mud. Lord Kelvin and Hermann Helmholtz proposed a modern version in the 1870s. The Swedish scientist Arrhenius proposed that bacterial spores could travel through space propelled by light pressure. In 1920, Oparine and Haldane proposed a more sophisticated version of Spontaneous Generation which has subsequently been augmented by the work of others. The modern version of Panspermia suggests that life originated elsewhere and was subsequently propagated to Earth through space. Once attractive feature of Panspermia is that it is unclear whether the early Earth had significant amounts of the Nitrogen bearing reactants used in Urey/Oro experiments.

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Papillomembrana

A Neoproterozoic acritarch(?) found in phosphatic clasts in the Biskop's Conglomerate in Norway

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Paracharnia

A sea pen like fossil from the Yangtse Gorge of South China Number [6] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Parabadiella

The oldest trilobite in the Lower Cambrian sequence in Yunnan province in China.

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Paradoxidacea

Another group of trilobites with free checks and small pygidea from Europe, Asia, and the Atlantic Province of North America. Most are Middle Cambrian, but a few are known from the late early Cambrian.

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Paraenicola:

A proterozoic wormlike fossil from China. It is found in the Changlingzi Formation. The age of the formation is thought to be about 700 Ma. Thought to be Sabellidites, Paleolina or Annelids.

• Paraenicola fuzhouensis China - Changlingzi Formation

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Parafallotopsis

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Paragastropoda

Early mollusks including the family Pelagiellidae that may include the coiled Tommotian form Aldanella

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Paraleptomitella

A Lower Cambrian Sponge

• Paraleptomitella dictyodroma Cehn, Hou and Lu, 1989 - Maotianshan Shale, China

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Parapeyotia:

A chinese anamalocarid with a rear facing and possibly anomalous mouth, radially distributed sclerites around the mouth and possibly with lanceolate scales on its back. There appears to have been a harder shell than many other anamalocarids and if fact the best known specimen appears to be a body moult. Forward grasping appendages have only 5 segments and appear possibly to be grasping organs bringing the spines of all segments together to grasp objects. Appendages are biramous with legs. P. yunnanensis. It has stalked eyes and a telson. It has been proposed that it might not be an anamalocarid and might be related to Fortiforceps. ( Chen and Zhou 1997)

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Paraphyly

Cladistic jargon for groups that include an ancestor and descendants, but omits some descendants.

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Paratetraphycus

A multicellular algae, possibly a bangiophyte red algae, with differentiated cells. Found in the neoproterozoic Doushantuo formation of China

• Paratetrphycus giganteus

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Parsimony Analysis of Endemism(PAE)

An analysis technique of distribution of animal forms. PAE of Vendian (Late Precambrian) faunas of the world shows two major groupings:

• Russia, Canada, South Australia

• England, Newfoundland

Studies of the base data revealed no correlation between Latitude, Sunlight, Seasonality, etc. The greatest apparent biodiversity was found in subpolar latitudes. Some early forms are found in interglacial deposits(10)

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Parvancorina

A shield shaped pre-Cambrian fossil with a pick shaped raised area on it. It vaguely resembles a child's kite with rounded edges and a pick shaped decoration. It somewhat resembles some larval trilobites and has seriously been proposed as either the larva of a very large trilobite or a trilobite that retains its larval shape into adulthood. Other authors consider these interpretations do be a bit unlikely, but there is some consensus that it might be an arthropod. Ediacara, White Sea,

A late paleozoic form from Southern Australia. Thought to possibly be a squashed arthropod with a tall three dimensional shape with a central axial ridge and strongly arched anterior lobes that may somewhat resemble Burgessia. It appears to have had about 10 possibly biramous limbs. It was about 2.5cm in length It generally appears to be a kite or shield shaped fossil with an upright pick shaped raised area. Better preserved specimens look as if the "pick head" is possibly the back of a cephalic shield. The "handle" is a raised central axis on the "thorax", and a number of segments are present aft of and parallel to the "pick head". It is asserted that one recent specimen shows gills and possibly legs associated with the segments. Number [84] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

Paultoterminus

A bivalved arthropod somewhat similar to Waptia found in the Sirius Passet fauna of North Greenland.

• P spinodorsalis North Greenland

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Peachella

An Ollenelid trilobite with bloated genal and third thoracic segment spines. There are at least two species -- P iddingsi and P brevispina. Peachella is known from the Lower Cambrian of the Western United States. One complete specimen is known -- that from the Carerra formation at Emigrant Pass in the Nopah Range in CA.

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Pedroche Formation

A Lower Cambrian formation from the Sierra de Cordoba area of Southern Spain. The fauna includes Bradoriida-tannuolina-Latouchella assemblege and archeocyathids.

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Pelagiellidae

A family of the Paragastropods that may include the coiled Tommotian form Aldanella

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Pellet Filled Tubes

A collection of ichnofossils that consist of burrows filled or lined with fecal pellets. These are primarily Mesozoic and later forms, but Alcyonidiopsis is reported from the Ordovician of Nevada and the 'eopaleozoica' of Argentina's Eastern Cordilliera. I've included them because I'll never find the data again if I need it. The primary distinction is between pellet filled burrows (Alcyonidiopsis) and pellet lined burrows (Granularia). A second distinction is between the burrow and the pellets (Tomaculum). Synocoprulus is a later alternative name for Alcyonidiopsis, Coprulus is a later alternative name for Tomaculum. Some specimens of Chondrites are pellet filled and possibly should be classified as Alcyonidiopsis.

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Peptide

A short chain of Amino Acids. Generally anything from a few to perhaps 100 Amino Acids. Longer chains are called Proteins. There is some overlap between "Proteins" and "peptides". In general complete, naturally occurring molecules tend to be called proteins whereas fragments of proteins tend to be called peptides.

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Perenchymatous

Apparently an obscure, specialized term describing some sort of multicellular architecture found in brown, bangiophyte red, and green algae. It is marked by fountain like growths of multicellular filaments. Perenchymatous organizations are reportedly common in algae in the neoproterozoic Doushantuo formation of China.

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Periomella

A small trilobite -- 6mm or so wide. May be known from the distinctive cephalon only. Eye lobes actually pass out beyond the cephalon rim. P yorkensis is known from the Lower Cambrian of Quebec Treatise Description (3): Glabella tapered, truncate in front, faintly furrowed; preglabellar field may have median boss; border convex; eye ridges directed forward from glabella; palperbal area twice as wide as glabella; border furrow on posterior areas not reaching cranidial margin.; libergenae narrow genal spines.

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Periomma

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Peronochaeta

A polylchaete worm of unknown affinity from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia. About 20 specimens are know. It is a segmented animal 10-20mm long with up to 34 segments. One end is bluntly rounded. The other \ assumed to be the head \ has two small conical papillae at the corners. Each segment has a pair of parapodia covered with setae. There are 15-20 long ones and 2-4 short curved one. It appears that all the setae are rigid.

• P dubia Walcott 1911 \ M Cambrian Burgess Shale.

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Persimedusites

Possible late Pre-Cambrian or early Cambrian fossil from Central Iran .

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Perissopyge

A trilobite generally associated with the Middle Cambrian. Found in the Upper Lower Cambrian Henson Gletscher formation of Northern Greenland

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Perspicaris

A bivalved arthropod from the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. It is thought to be a Phyllocarid crustacean. Perspicaris is not common in the Burgess Shale and is thought to have been a free swimming animal that was rarely engulfed in the turbide flows that created the formation. Perspicaris had a two valved hinged shell. There were two good sized stalked eyes in front and a pair of segmented, spiny appendages (antennae) below them. The abdoman was composed of at least seven wide flat mobile segments terminating in small spines. The thorax ended in a telson with a two pronged spiked tail. Apparently the shell was attached to the cephalon allowing the segmented thorax and abdomen to move independently of the shell. Typical length including the tail is around 2.4cm.

Perspicaris is known from the Burgess Shale, the underlying Ogyggopsis beds, the Middle Cambrian of Utah and the Chengjiang fauna of China

• P dictynna Simonetta and Dell Cave 1975 \ Burgess Shale of BC

• P sp UT

• P sp Yunnan, China

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/pperspic.htm

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Peytoia

A disk shaped Lower and Middle Cambrian fossil reminiscent of a pineapple slice with 12 segments. It was originally thought to be a jellyfish, but was eventually found to be the mouth of an animal called Anomalocaris. When intact the central hole is found to contain numerous rows of shearing teeth,

• Peytoia Nathorstii Walcott, 1911

• Burgess Shale

• Maotianshan Shale

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Phanerozoic Era

A name once applied to the period after the first appearance of the Cambrian hard shelled faunas. The name -- which means "visible life" -- is not much used nowadays.

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Phenetic Clustering Analysis

An analysis technique of distribution of animal forms. It has been applied to Vendian faunas with results similar to those from PAE. Computer Programs suitable for analysis.

• MVSP 2.2, a PC-based package produced by Kovach Computing Services, Anglesey, Wales.

• MacDendro and GraphMu, Macintosh-based shareware developed by Jean Thioulouse at the CNRS Laboratoire de Biométrie, Génétique et Biologie des Populations based at the University of Lyon, France.

• PC-based package NTSYS-PC 1.3. Publishers, Exeter Software.

  (10)

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Phoronia

An obscure modern worm like phylum apparently closely related to the brachiopods and bryozoa. A possible Phoronidan is known from the Lower Cambrian of Maotianshan, Yunnan, China

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Phosphate

In general encases rather than replacing organic material

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Phosphate deposits

May be associated with upwelling of nutrient rich water or with "iron-pumping" where FeOOH scavenges PO4-3 and delivers it to sediment beds where it is reduced. In some cases may be produced by microbial action. Rare in deposits prior to oxygenation of the atmosphere.

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Phosphatocopidia

An order of Crustacea like arthropods from the Cambrian. The earliest knows speciment is a well preserved 0.5mm animal from the Lower Cambrian of Stropshire, England. The Phophatocopidia were originally thought to be ostracods but are now thought to be a Sister group to the Eucrustacea

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Phoshatocopina

Primitive crustacea with

• first antennae (a1) are very small

• eyes are not facetted,

• three-segmented endopods on all post-antennular limbs,

• a bivalved shield,

• mandible merged with 2^nd antenna,

• up to six post-cephalic limbs

• no, or minimal tail with no telson

Found in the Lower Cambrian of Stropshire, England. The best known specimen with preserved limbs is an early larva of an unknown adult form. They are bivalved crustacea, but the two valves are attached and unhinged. They are thought to be very close to the mainstream of crustacean evolution (the Eucrstacea) and appear very near the beginning of the Cambrian.

Http://biosys-serv.biologie.uni-ulm.de/sektion/dieter/eucrustacea/eucrustaceaskara.html

Genera (mostly Upper Cambrian) inclued Hesslandia, Cyclotron, and possibly Kunmingella.

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Photosynthesis

A chemical process wherein Hydrogen and Carbon dioxide are combined in a multistep process to form the sugar Glucose. The Hydrogen may come from Hydrogen Gas, the volcanic gas Hydrogen Sulfide or water. The various process differ almost entirely in the Energy dependent process of isolating and attaching Hydrogen. This may be done by a variety of chemical conversions. Green plants use Chlorophyll to split water. Chlorophyll or other compounds may be used by bacteria. Other bacteria use other compounds to remove Hydrogen from less available, but less energy hungry sources such as Hydrogen Sulfide.

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Phycodes

Phycodes is a somewhat fan like trace fossil consisting of numerous arced traces originating from a common source. It is interpreted as being a feeding fossil -- the result of a large number of probes into the sediment by a stationary animal. It first appears just after the small shelly fauna fossils and just before the first modern metazoa. It is found in the Lake Louise/Kicking Horse Pass area of British Columbia/Alberta, the Pioche shale of Nevada, Newfoundland In Spain, it is found in association with other trace fossils (Monomorphichnus and Psammichnites) below Cloudinids and Anabartids.

• Phycodes pedum -- Fortune Head, Nfld, Spain

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Phycodes pedum zone

The second oldest of three worldwide trace fossil zone identified by Narbonne and Myrow as being present in the Chapel Island Formation at Fortune Head, Newfoundland. The Phycodes pedum zone contains arthropod traces such as Monomorphichnus, burrows like Skolithos and renicolites, Coelenterate borrows/impressions --Conichnus, Bergaueria, Phycodes itself and the complex feeding burrow - Gyrolithes.

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Phycoma

Cysts formed as on life stage of some of green algae. The oldest phycoma have been dated at about 1200Ma.

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Phyllocarids

A subclass of the Malacostracan Crustaceans. With five head segments eight thorax and seven abdomen segments (vs six in the other malacostraca). Phylocarids have hinged bivalved shells that cover the thorax. The abdomen has serially repeated paddle like biramous appendages on the segments. Phyllocarids are obscure nowdays but are found throughout the geologic record. The earliest phyllocarids are thought to be Perspicaris from the Lower and Middle Cambrian.

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Phylogeny

The study of relationships between lifeforms. 'Phylogeny' is often treated as being synonomous with 'molecular phylogeny', the study of relationships based on analysis of sequences of bases in DNA or RNA. Molecular phylogeny has two major aspects. The first is the determination of relationships based on the theory that similar base sequences derive from common ancestors. The second is the study of 'molecular clocks' that purport to be able to determine when specific base sequences differentiated based on the amount of random change in them. The first part has considerable credibility. The later is subject to considerable scepticism.

As of 2001 the current favored tool of molecular phylogeny is Short Interspersed Repetetive Elements (SINEs).

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phylum

This is a slightly obsolete categorization of lifeforms below the level of "Kingdoms". Some modern analysts have replaced the concept of Kingdoms, Phyla etc. with a concept of "clades" which is somewhat analogous. Cladistics generally has not been applied to early life because it requires as least some knowledge or plausible guesses of what beget what relationships between creatures. For early life, those relationships are not yet well understood. The Phyla are detailed in the section on Conventional Fossils.

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Phyllozoon

Ediacara Number [18] in Waggoner's doctoral thesis.

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Piazella (3)

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Pikaia

A 5cm wormlike creature from the Burgess Shale near Field BC Pikaia is thought to be a primitive chordate. If appears to have a notochord, and to resemble the living animal Amphioxus. It has a small bifid tail and a rather large triangular head. There is one species Pikaia gracilens{1}

http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/ppikaia.htm

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Pilbara Craton

A region in northwest Australia where a thick deposit of very old sedimentary and volcanic rocks is exposed. Several beds in the sequence have yielded very old organ